CSS Past Paper 2016 Psychology Descriptive

CSS | Past Paper | Group 7 | 2016 | Part 2 | Descriptive

Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2016 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2).

Question 2

Describe role of nervous system and narrate the functions of neurons and endocrine system in brain functioning.

Introduction

Any human body is ruled and governed by two major systems: the nervous system and the. endocrine system. The two systems are significant in the functioning of the brain. They assist in thinking, feeling, moving and responding to things that are going on around us. This solution will give the role of the nervous. system, the role of the neurons, and the manner in which the endocrine system interacts with the brain.

Nervous System and its Role in Brain Functioning

The nervous system is considered to be the communication system of the body. It transmits impulses between the brain and other body parts. It has two main parts:

a. Central Nervous System (CNS)

It includes the brain and spinal cord.
The brain controls thinking, emotions, memory, and body movements.
The spinal cord carries signals from the brain to the rest of the body.

b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

It includes nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
It connects the CNS with limbs and organs.
It helps in sensing the environment and controlling muscles.

Role in Brain Functioning

The nervous system helps in thinking, learning, memory, and decision making.
It also helps in body functions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion through involuntary actions.
It sends electrical signals to and from the brain to respond quickly.

Neurons and their Functions

Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system. They are special cells that carry messages in the form of electrical signals.

Structure of a Neuron

Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and keeps the neuron alive.
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Axon: Sends signals to other neurons or muscles.
Synapse: Gap between neurons where messages pass through chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Functions

Send and receive messages in the brain and body.
Help in reflex actions, like pulling hand away from hot surface.
Work together to make thoughts, memories, and movements.
Neurons in different brain parts help control vision, hearing, speech, and emotions.

Endocrine System and its Role in Brain Functioning

The endocrine system is made up of glands that release hormones. Hormones are chemicals that control many body functions.

Important Glands and Their Role

Pituitary gland: Known as the master gland, it controls other glands and helps in growth.
Thyroid gland: It regulates metabolism and energy levels.
Adrenal glands: It secretes adrenaline and aids in the stress and emergency reaction.
Pineal gland: It secrets melatonin and regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
Hypothalamus: It joins the nervous and endocrine systems. It exerts control over the pituitary gland.

Endocrine and Brain Connection

Hormones govern mood, memory, and behavior.
Moreover, hormones control growth, development, and reproductive processes.
In case of stress condition, hormones like cortisol assist the brain in remaining alert.
An imbalance in the hormone can cause mental disorders like anxiety or depression.

Conclusion

Simply put, the nervous system and the endocrine system work together to help the brain function. Fast electrical messengers are transmitted by neurons, and slow chemical messengers are transmitted by hormones. The two systems are required to think, feel, move, and react in everyday life. Without them, the body and brain can’t function normally.

Question 3

Explain the relationship between learning and memory. Identify the role of reinforcement, extinction and conditioned stimuli in the context of classical conditioning.

Introduction

Learning and memory are two basic processes of human mind. We learn new things every day and remember them for future. Learning is about getting new knowledge or behavior, while memory is about storing and recalling that information. Both are strongly connected and depend on each other. Classical conditioning is one way of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov, which involves learning through association.

Relationship Between Learning and Memory

a. What is Learning?

Learning means a permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice. It can be intentional or unintentional.

b. What is Memory?

Memory is the ability to store, keep and recall information. It has three parts:

Encoding (taking information),
Storage (keeping it),
Retrieval (getting it back).

c. How They Are Related?

Learning can’t happen without memory. When we learn something, we must store it to use it later.
Memory is proof of learning.
For example, if a child learns how to ride a bicycle, he will remember that skill and use it again.
Memory helps us learn from past experiences, and learning helps in building new memories.

Classical Conditioning (Basic Idea)

Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a person or animal associates two things. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, did an experiment on dogs and found that they can be trained to salivate on hearing a bell, if the bell is always followed by food.

Example:
Bell (Neutral Stimulus) + Food (Unconditioned Stimulus) → Salivation (Unconditioned Response)
After repetition:
Bell alone (Conditioned Stimulus) → Salivation (Conditioned Response)

Role of Reinforcement, Extinction and Conditioned Stimuli in Classical Conditioning

a. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

It is a previously neutral stimulus which now causes a response after being linked with unconditioned stimulus.
In Pavlov’s experiment, bell became the conditioned stimulus after being linked with food.

b. Reinforcement

Reinforcement means strengthening the learned behavior.
Though it is more common in operant conditioning, in classical conditioning, repeated pairing of CS (bell) with US (food) acts like reinforcement.
It helps in making the association strong between stimuli and response.
More pairing → stronger learning.

c. Extinction

If the conditioned stimulus is presented without unconditioned stimulus for many times, the learned response slowly goes away.
For example, if the bell rings but no food comes, the dog will stop salivating after some time. This is called extinction.
It shows that learned behaviors are not always permanent, they can be lost without reinforcement.

Real-Life Examples of Classical Conditioning

School bell and students: Students start packing bags when they hear the last bell.
Phobia or fear: If someone was bitten by a dog, he may feel scared even when he sees a friendly dog.
Advertisement: People may feel hungry when they see an ad showing delicious food with a catchy jingle.

Conclusion

Learning and memory are connected like two sides of a coin. Without memory, learning is useless, and without learning, memory has no input. Classical conditioning shows how we can learn things just by associating one stimulus with another. In this process, reinforcement makes learning strong, extinction removes the learned response, and conditioned stimulus is the key trigger that brings the learned response. These concepts are not only seen in labs but also in our real life.

Question 4

Give theoretical perspective of personality and describe personality assessment techniques and their uses.

Introduction

Personality is the total pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person different from others. It includes how we act, how we feel, and how we think. Psychologists have made many theories to explain how personality develops and how we can measure it. In this question, we will initially examine the theories of personality then discuss the methods of the assessment of personality.

Part 1: Theoretical Perspectives of Personality

There are many theories in psychology that try to explain personality. The major ones are:

Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

Freud believed personality is shaped by unconscious mind, childhood events, and inner conflicts.
He broke personality down into id (pleasure), ego (reality), and superego (morality).
He asserted that we use defense mechanisms (such as denial, repression) to protect us from anxiety.
This theory illustrates the influence of early experiences on adult behavior.

Trait Theory (Allport, Cattell, Eysenck)

This theory says personality is made of traits, which are stable characteristics.
For example, honesty, confidence, shyness.
Eysenck gave 3 main traits: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism.
Big Five model (OCEAN) is also popular:
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism

Humanistic Theory (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)

They believed people are naturally good and want to grow.
Rogers talked about self-concept and said we need positive regard to become our best self.
Maslow gave Hierarchy of Needs, ending in Self-actualization.
This theory focuses on free will and personal growth.

Behaviorist Theory (B.F. Skinner, Watson)

Personality is shaped by environment and learning.
We act based on rewards and punishments.
Skinner said we are not born with traits; we learn them through conditioning.
No role of unconscious mind or internal thoughts.

Social-Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)

Personality is shaped by observation, thinking, and environment.
Bandura gave the idea of reciprocal determinism: behavior, personal factors, and environment influence each other.
He also talked about self-efficacy – belief in your own abilities.

Part 2: Personality Assessment Techniques and Their Uses

There are various ways of assessing personality by psychologists. These are referred to as assessment techniques. Each has its own purpose.

Self-Report Inventories

These are questionnaires where person answers about himself.
Example: MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory), Big Five Inventory.
Easy to use and score.
Useful in clinical diagnosis, counseling, and research.

Projective Tests

These are open-ended tests. Person is shown unclear stimuli and asked to explain.
Idea is that people project their inner feelings.
Examples:
- Rorschach Inkblot Test – show ink pictures and ask what they see.
- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – person tells story about a picture.
Used in therapy and deep personality analysis.
Not easy to score; needs expert.

Behavioral Assessments

Psychologist observes behavior in real life or lab settings.
Example: how a child behaves in classroom.
Used in schools, clinics, or organizational settings.
Helps in studying habits, social skills, etc.

Interviews

Face-to-face or structured interviews used to ask questions about person’s life, choices, and thinking.
Common in job selection, counseling, and clinical work.
Can be formal or informal.

Situational Tests

Person is put in a real-life situation to see how he reacts.
Used in job hiring, like group discussions or role-playing.
Tells about decision-making, leadership, and communication skills.

Which Area is More Important in Human Development?

All four areas are important and related to each other. But many different psychologists and specialists have said that emotional development is the basis of other developments.

Reasons

A child with good emotional control can focus better in school (helps cognitive).
Emotionally strong child can make friends easily (helps social).
Stress and anxiety affect physical growth and brain development.
Emotional health leads to better mental health, better decision-making, and success in life.

So, emotional development plays a key role because it supports other areas and helps the child face challenges confidently.

Conclusion

Child development is not just about physical growth but also how the brain, emotions, and relationships develop. All four areas — physical, cognitive, social, and emotional — are connected and important. But emotional development is the core because it helps in learning, social life, and future success. A healthy child must grow in all areas to become a well-rounded adult.

Question 6

Define abnormal behaviour and describe possible psychological treatment used to treat anxiety or personality disorder in patients.

Introduction

In psychology, not all behaviors are considered normal. Sometimes, people act, think, or feel in a way that is not accepted by society or harmful to themselves. Such behaviors are called abnormal behaviors. These behaviors affect daily life, relationships, and mental health. Common examples include anxiety disorders, depression, phobias, and personality disorders. Psychologists use different methods to treat such conditions.

Definition of Abnormal Behaviour

Abnormal behavior is any action, thought, or emotion that is:

Statistically rare
Socially unacceptable
Causes personal suffering
Interferes with daily functioning

Example:
If a person is afraid to leave home (agoraphobia) or keeps washing hands 100 times a day (OCD), it is considered abnormal.

Main Causes of Abnormal Behaviour

Biological: Genetics, brain injury, or chemical imbalance.
Psychological: Trauma, negative thinking, low self-esteem.
Social: Family problems, poverty, bullying.
Environmental: Stressful life events, drug abuse, isolation.

Anxiety and Personality Disorders

a. Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety is a feeling of nervousness, fear, or worry.
It becomes a disorder when it happens too often or without a real reason.
Types:
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
- Panic Disorder
- Phobias
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

b. Personality Disorders

Personality disorders are long-term patterns of thinking and behavior that are inflexible and unhealthy.
A person may not realize they have a disorder.
Types:
- Borderline Personality Disorder
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder
- Antisocial Personality Disorder
- Avoidant Personality Disorder

Psychological Treatments

Psychological treatments are methods used by therapists to help patients manage or recover from mental illness. Some common treatments for anxiety and personality disorders include:

a. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT is the most effective therapy for anxiety and some personality disorders.
It helps people identify negative thoughts and replace them with positive thinking.
Helps in controlling fears, reducing panic attacks, and changing bad behavior.
Short-term, goal-based, and practical.

b. Medication (With Therapy)

For anxiety, doctors sometimes give anti-anxiety drugs or antidepressants.
These are usually given along with therapy.
Medication helps in reducing symptoms but not the root cause.

c. Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)

A special type of CBT used for Borderline Personality Disorder.
Focuses on emotion control, stress handling, and improving relationships.
Helpful for people who have self-harming behavior or emotional outbursts.

d. Psychoanalysis / Psychodynamic Therapy

Based on Freud’s ideas.
Looks at past childhood experiences and unconscious mind.
Long-term therapy, helps patients understand deep-rooted emotional problems.

e. Group Therapy

Patients with similar disorders sit together with a therapist.
They share experiences, support each other, and learn new ways to cope.
Helps reduce isolation and shame.

f. Family Therapy

In personality disorders, family members also suffer.
Therapy helps the whole family understand the patient and support recovery.

Importance of Early Treatment

The earlier the treatment, the better the recovery.
Without help, anxiety or personality disorder can become worse, leading to depression, addiction, or even suicidal thoughts.
A combination of therapy, medication, and supportive environment gives best results.

Conclusion

Abnormal behavior is not just “madness” — it is a serious health condition that can affect anyone. Anxiety and personality disorders are common but treatable. Having the latest psychological therapies, such as CBT, DBT, and therapy, patients will be able to enhance their life, feel confident, and lead a regular life. Such people should be supported rather than being judged by society.

Question 7

Describe various leadership styles and explain the role of decision making in the development of an organization.

Introduction

Leadership is the capability of an individual to influence and bring other people towards an objective. A leader is one who is good in motivating, directing and giving vision to the team. Leadership in any organization is highly essential. Different leaders apply different leadership styles depending on the circumstance and individuals. Further, leadership involves a lot of decision making. An organization cannot develop or become successful without making good decisions.

Part 1: Various Leadership Styles

Leadership styles are numerous. All of them possess certain advantages and disadvantages. The most widespread styles are discussed below:

Autocratic Leadership

The leader takes all decisions alone.
No input from team members.
Fast decision-making, but people may feel ignored.
Best in crisis or military settings.

Example: A factory owner decides working hours without asking employees.

Democratic Leadership (Participative)

The leader takes opinions from team members before deciding.
Encourages creativity and teamwork.
Slower decision-making but more satisfaction among workers.

Example: A manager asks employees for ideas before starting a new project.

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Very relaxed leadership style.
Leader gives freedom to team members to do tasks in their own way.
Good when team is experienced, but risky if team lacks direction.

Example: A research group is allowed to do experiments without direct orders.

Transformational Leadership

Leader inspires and motivates team to achieve higher goals.
Focuses on change, innovation, and future.
Builds strong vision and emotional connection with employees.

Example: A tech company CEO encourages employees to develop creative solutions.

Transactional Leadership

Based on reward and punishment system.
Leader gives tasks and expects results.
Suitable for routine work and short-term goals.

Example: A sales manager gives bonus for meeting sales targets.

Servant Leadership

Leader puts employees first.
Focus on helping others grow and succeed.
Builds trust and teamwork in organization.

Example: A leader helps new workers learn skills instead of just giving orders.

Part 2: Role of Decision Making in Organization Development

Decision making is the process of choosing between options. In organizations, every big or small decision affects performance, growth, and employee morale.

Strategic Planning

Leaders decide the vision and goals of the organization.
A clear direction helps in long-term growth.
Wrong decisions can waste resources and time.

Resource Management

Decisions about money, people, and time must be made carefully.
Good leaders know how to utilize fully their limited resources.
This assists in the prevention of losses and the increase in productivity.

Problem Solving

Every organization faces problems.
A leader who takes fast and smart decisions can solve issues quickly.
Reduces stress and builds trust in leadership.

Employee Motivation and Morale

When employees are involved in the decision-making process, they become more involved in and feel a more part of the company.
Motivated employees will work better.
This results in less employee turnover and more loyalty.

Adapting to Change

Market and technology change fast.
A good leader must take quick decisions to adjust.
Helps organization stay competitive.

Crisis Management

In emergencies, leadership and decisions become very important.
A calm and wise decision can save the company.
For example, during COVID-19, many leaders made decisions to shift to online work.

Conclusion

Leadership and decision-making are like heart and brain of an organization. The leadership style must match the situation and the people. A good leader not only gives orders but also listens, motivates, and guides. Decision making is also key to solving problems, using resources properly, and taking the company toward success. A balance of right leadership and strong decisions builds a strong and growing organization.

Question 8

Write short notes on any FOUR of the following:

a. Sensation and perception
b. Operational conditioning
c. Group dynamics
d. Beliefs and behavior
e. Models of stress
f. Juvenile delinquents

a. Sensation and Perception

Sensation is the process of getting information from the environment through our sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin). It is a biological process.

Perception is the process where the brain interprets the sensory data. It gives meaning to what we see, hear, feel, or smell.

Example: Light enters the eye (sensation), and the brain understands it’s a car (perception).

These two always work together. Sensation collects data, and perception helps us understand it.

b. Operational Conditioning

B.F. Skinner suggested the concept of operant conditioning and postulated that behaviors are learned as a result of their consequences.

Main parts:

Reinforcement: Increases behavior.
- Positive reinforcement: Giving a reward.
- Negative reinforcement: Removing something bad.
Punishment: Decreases behavior.
- Positive punishment: Giving something unpleasant.
- Negative punishment: Taking away something good.
Extinction: When a behavior stops because it’s no longer rewarded.

It is widely used in schools, parenting, therapy, and workplaces.

c. Group Dynamics

Group dynamics means the ways people relate to each other in a group. It includes communication, leadership, cooperation, and conflict.

Important elements:

Norms: Rules followed by group members.
Roles: Each member has a duty.
Cohesion: Bond between members.
Conflict resolution: How disagreements are handled.

Good group dynamics improve teamwork, productivity, and decision-making, especially in organizations and classrooms.

d. Beliefs and Behavior

Beliefs are thoughts placed as knowingly true by a person. Behavior is the way a person acts. There is a close connection between a person’s beliefs and their behavior.

For example:

A person who believes smoking is a harmful habit may discontinue smoking.
Religious beliefs frequently influence patterns of eating, dress, and living.

Sometimes when behavior and belief are not in agreement there is mental strain (cognitive dissonance) and one is changed to become in harmony with the other.

e. Models of Stress

Stress models help explain how and why people feel stress.

1. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – by Hans Selye

Alarm stage: Body reacts (fight or flight).
Resistance stage: Body tries to cope.
Exhaustion stage: Energy is used up, and illness may happen.

2. Transactional Model – by Lazarus and Folkman

Stress depends on how a person interprets the event (appraisal).
If we see a problem as too big and think we can’t handle it, we feel more stress.

Models help in making stress management plans like therapy, exercise, or time management.

f. Juvenile Delinquents

A juvenile delinquent is a person who is a child, or minor (usually under 18) who commits a crime or violates the law.

Common reasons:

Family problems
Peer pressure
Poverty
Drug abuse
Lack of education

Examples of juvenile crimes: theft, vandalism, fighting, or drug dealing.

Rehabilitation, not punishment, is the focus. Juvenile justice system gives counseling, education, and training programs to help youth return to society.

Conclusion

All these topics are basic parts of psychology. From learning and behavior to crime and stress, each area helps us understand how humans think and act in daily life. Recognizing these concepts is significant in addressing individual, social, and national problems.

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