CSS Past Paper 2018 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2)
CSS | Past Paper | Group 7 | 2018 | Part 2 | Descriptive
Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2018 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2).
Question 2
To what extent in the twenty-first century you justify the role of ‘the mind’ in psychology?
Introduction
In the past, psychology was called the science of the mind, but in the early part of the twentieth century, it was changed to the science of behavior, especially since behaviorism was becoming popular. Now, in the twentieth century, modern psychology has come back to the science of the mind, because of the new tools for research and the new knowledge about how people think, feel, and decide. So, yes! The mind, in psychology today, is not only justified, but very important.
Understanding ‘The Mind’ in Psychology
The mind is not a physical thing like the brain. The mind is the term used for our thinking, memory, attention, problem solving, feelings, dreaming, and so on. These things cannot be touched but studies are made scientifically through observations and experimentation of these areas.
Why the Mind Matters in 21st Century Psychology?
1. Cognitive Revolution
- After the 1950s, psychology slowly moved away from just behavior and started studying how people think, remember, and learn.
- Psychologists realized that behavior can’t be fully explained without looking at mental processes.
- This is called the cognitive approach and it has become one of the most important fields in psychology today.
2. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
- CBT is a modern therapy that helps people by changing their negative thoughts.
- It proves that our thoughts (mind) affect our feelings and actions.
- Widely used for treating depression, anxiety, OCD, etc.
3. Role in Artificial Intelligence
- Psychology now works with computer science to make machines that can think like humans.
- AI models are built by studying how the human mind works.
- This would be impossible without understanding mental processes.
4. Neuroscience and Brain Scans
- Tools like fMRI and EEG help scientists see what part of the brain is active when a person thinks, dreams, or remembers something.
- It helps connect the mind (thinking) with the brain (biology).
- For example, the prefrontal cortex is active during decision-making.
5. Mind in Education and Learning
- Teachers now use methods that match how the student’s mind processes information.
- Memory techniques, critical thinking, and problem-solving are taught to students.
- Psychology of learning can’t be applied without focusing on the mind.
6. Mind and Emotions
- Emotions like anger, fear, love all happen in the mind before they show in behavior.
- Emotional intelligence (EQ) is now as important as IQ, especially in jobs and leadership.
- Psychology now studies how people understand and control their emotions.
Challenges in Studying the Mind
- The mind is not directly visible, so it’s hard to measure.
- Some critics say it’s too abstract.
- But now, psychology uses experiments, tests, and imaging to study it scientifically.
Conclusion
There is no doubt that in the twenty-first century psychology cannot ignore the mind. The mind, though not a physical thing, is the center for human experience. Whether it’s mental health, education, or technology, the mind plays a huge role. Thanks to modern science and tools, the mind is now studied in a more reliable and helpful way than ever before.
Question 3
Why is associative learning important? Discuss with respect to the behavioural repertoire provided by instrumental versus associative forms of learning.
Introduction
Associative learning is when we learn by connecting one thing to another. It’s a basic type of learning that helps us predict outcomes and change our behavior. There are two major types:
- Classical Conditioning (associating two stimuli)
- Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental Conditioning; associating behavior with consequences)
Both are very important for understanding how humans and animals learn and behave in daily life.
What is Associative Learning?
It is the process of learning a relationship between two events. It helps us survive by teaching us which things are good or bad, and how to act in the future.
Example:
If a child touches a hot stove and feels pain, they learn not to touch it again. That’s associative learning — connecting behavior with a result.
Types of Associative Learning
1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- Learning by association between two stimuli
- Famous experiment: Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate when hearing a bell because they associated it with food.
- Components:
- UCS: Unconditioned stimulus (food)
- UCR: Unconditioned response (salivation)
- CS: Conditioned stimulus (bell)
- CR: Conditioned response (salivation to bell)
2. Instrumental / Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
- Learning by associating behavior with consequences
- If behavior is rewarded, it is more likely to happen again. If punished, it is less likely.
- Key terms:
- Positive reinforcement: Giving reward (e.g., praise for good marks)
- Negative reinforcement: Removing something bad (e.g., reducing homework for good behavior)
- Punishment: Adding something bad or removing something good to decrease behavior
Importance of Associative Learning
- Survival
Helps animals and humans learn what to avoid and what to approach. For example, learning not to eat spoiled food. - Behavior Shaping
Teachers, parents, and even governments use rewards and punishments to shape behavior. - Education
Students learn better when good behavior is rewarded (e.g., stars, praise), which is operant conditioning. - Phobias and Therapy
Many fears are learned through classical conditioning. Therapists use desensitization to help patients unlearn these fears. - Animal Training
Pets are trained using treats (positive reinforcement), which is a form of operant conditioning. - Marketing and Advertising
Brands use classical conditioning to associate their products with happiness, success, or beauty.
Behavioral Repertoire: Instrumental vs Associative
| Feature | Classical Conditioning | Operant Conditioning |
| Type of learning | Stimulus-stimulus association | Behavior-consequence association |
| Role of subject | Passive | Active |
| Key psychologist | Ivan Pavlov | B.F. Skinner |
| Example | Dog salivates to bell | Student studies to get good grades |
| Control | Less flexible (automatic responses) | More flexible (conscious behavior) |
- Classical conditioning creates automatic responses (like fear or salivation).
- Operant conditioning is more about choices and actions, like studying, working hard, or quitting bad habits.
Conclusion
Associative learning is essential for survival, behavior development, and even culture. It helps us learn from experience by forming links between actions and outcomes. While classical conditioning builds automatic habits and emotional reactions, operant conditioning helps us control our behaviors through rewards and punishments. Both are major parts of our behavioral toolkit in everyday life.
Question 4
What are the major developmental changes that occur during the school years?
Introduction
The school years usually refer to the time from 6 to 12 years of age (middle childhood). This is a very important time in a child’s development because they begin to grow mentally, physically, socially, and emotionally. Children learn not just academics, but also how to interact with others and understand themselves.
Major Developmental Changes During School Years
1. Physical Development
- Steady growth in height and weight.
- Better coordination and control of body.
- Improved motor skills:
- Fine motor: writing, drawing.
- Gross motor: running, jumping.
- Some kids start early puberty around age 10–12.
2. Cognitive Development
- According to Jean Piaget, children enter the Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years).
- They develop:
- Logical thinking
- Understanding of cause and effect
- Conservation (understanding quantity stays same despite shape change)
- Better memory, problem-solving, and language skills.
- Increased attention span.
3. Emotional Development
- Children learn to control emotions better.
- They develop self-concept and self-esteem based on school performance and peer acceptance.
- Begin to experience complex emotions like shame, guilt, pride.
4. Social Development
- School becomes a major place for social interaction.
- Importance of friends increases.
- Learn to cooperate, share, follow rules, and respect others.
- Start to compare themselves with others (social comparison).
- Erikson’s stage: Industry vs. Inferiority – children work to be productive; if not encouraged, they may feel inferior.
5. Moral Development
- As per Kohlberg’s theory, most children are in the Conventional level:
- They understand right and wrong based on rules and social approval.
- Begin to care about fairness and justice.
6. Language and Communication
- Vocabulary grows rapidly.
- Use of complex sentences, jokes, and sarcasm.
- Better at explaining thoughts and asking questions.
- Reading and writing skills improve.
7. Identity Formation (Early Signs)
- Start exploring who they are in terms of likes, dislikes, and abilities.
- Early signs of gender identity and cultural awareness.
8. Influence of School Environment
- School success affects confidence.
- Positive teachers and supportive classmates improve mental health.
- Bullying or pressure can cause anxiety or low self-esteem.
Conclusion
The school years are a critical period in a child’s development. All four domains – physical, cognitive, emotional, and social – grow during this time. These changes shape the child’s future behaviour, learning ability, and personality. Proper support from parents, teachers, and society can help children develop into healthy and confident individuals.
Question 5
How do social and cognitive processes affect behaviour?
Introduction
Human behaviour is not determined by instincts or biology alone. It is affected by how we think (cognitively) and with our human relationships (socially). Therefore, they affect our actions, actions, decisions, and personality tremendously. Psychology tells us how our minds and our surroundings work together on human behaviour.
What are Cognitive Processes?
Cognitive processes are the mental activities involved in understanding, learning, remembering, and solving problems. These include:
- Perception – How we see and interpret things.
- Attention – What we focus on and ignore.
- Memory – Remembering past experiences.
- Thinking and reasoning – Making decisions and solving problems.
- Language – Understanding and using words.
What are Social Processes?
Social processes are how our behaviour is affected by our relationships, society, and culture. These include:
- Social norms – Rules we follow in society.
- Group influence – How people act in groups.
- Peer pressure – Influence from friends.
- Obedience and conformity – Changing behaviour to fit in or follow authority.
- Social roles – The parts we play in society (e.g., student, friend, sibling).
How Cognitive Processes Affect Behaviour?
(i) Perception
Our behaviour depends on how we interpret situations. For example, if someone bumps into us, we might think it was an accident or a threat. The way we perceive it will affect our response.
(ii) Memory
Past experiences stored in memory guide our future behaviour. For example, if a person had a bad experience with dogs, they might avoid them.
(iii) Problem Solving and Decision Making
We use reasoning to make everyday choices. A student chooses to study before an exam because they believe it will help them pass — this belief shapes the behaviour.
(iv) Expectations and Beliefs
If we think we will fail, we will not try to succeed. This is called a self-fulfilling prophecy. Our thoughts or our beliefs may limit or improve our actions.
How Social Processes Affect Behaviour?
(i) Conformity (Asch’s experiment)
For instance, people will change their actions to be like or accept a group, even if they know it is wrong. Such is the power of group influence.
(ii) Obedience (Milgram’s experiment)
People are obedient to authority figures even if they are repugnant to their morals. For instance, military men will follow orders even in situations of violence.
(iii) Social Roles (Zimbardo’s prison study)
People will act differently depending on their role. A good person will act badly if given a role of power.
(iv) Social Learning (Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment)
Children learn behaviour through observation, especially of adults (or role-models), even in respect to aggressive behaviour which is learned through observations of violence in homes or through the media.
Real-Life Examples
- Bullying in schools can happen because of peer pressure (social) and lack of empathy (cognitive).
- Helping behaviour increases when we believe someone really needs help (cognitive judgment) and if others are also helping (social influence).
- Racism or prejudice is often learned through society (social) and stored in memory (cognitive bias).
Connection Between Social and Cognitive Processes
Modern psychology often uses the social-cognitive theory, which says that both social environment and personal thinking work together to shape behaviour. For example, a person may think deeply before acting, but still change their behaviour in front of others.
Conclusion
Both social and cognitive processes have a strong impact on how people behave. Our thoughts, beliefs, and decisions guide our actions, while society, culture, and relationships influence the way we think and act. Understanding both is important to understand why people behave the way they do.
Question 6
What are the defining characteristics of humanistic therapy? Discuss how one might assess different psychotherapies. Which of the psychotherapies appear to be the most effective?
Introduction
Humanistic therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on helping people reach their full potential. It believes that all humans have an inborn desire for growth, self-awareness, and personal development. It was introduced in the 1950s as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which were seen as too negative or too focused on the past or on behavior alone.
Defining Characteristics of Humanistic Therapy
1. Focus on the Present
- Humanistic therapy doesn’t focus much on past trauma.
- It deals with “here and now” experiences and emotions.
2. Emphasis on Personal Growth
- Believes every person has the power to grow and improve.
- The therapist helps the person find their own solutions, not give advice.
3. Client-Centered Approach
- Introduced by Carl Rogers.
- The client is the main guide in the therapy.
- Therapist listens with empathy, warmth, and no judgment.
4. Unconditional Positive Regard
- Therapist accepts the client completely, no matter what they say or feel.
- This builds trust and helps the client open up honestly.
5. Emphasis on Self-Concept
- Therapy aims to reduce the gap between a person’s real self and ideal self.
- When these are closer, the person feels more confident and balanced.
6. Responsibility and Free Will
- People are responsible for their choices.
- Therapy encourages taking control of life instead of blaming others or the past.
How to Assess Different Psychotherapies?
To know which psychotherapy works best, psychologists use scientific methods and tools, like:
1. Outcome Studies
- Compare people who got therapy vs. those who didn’t.
- Use standardized tests to measure changes in depression, anxiety, etc.
2. Meta-Analysis
- Combine data from many studies to see which therapy works best overall.
3. Client Feedback
- Ask clients how they feel after therapy.
- Look at their progress in real life (work, relationships, emotions).
4. Long-Term Results
- Check if the client stays better even after therapy ends.
5. Therapist Training & Relationship
- How well-trained the therapist is matters.
- A strong bond between therapist and client (called therapeutic alliance) is key in all therapies.
Which Psychotherapy Is Most Effective?
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
- Found to be most effective for depression, anxiety, phobias, OCD, etc.
- It’s short-term, structured, and helps people change negative thinking patterns.
- Backed by hundreds of studies.
Humanistic Therapy
- Very effective for people with low self-esteem, relationship issues, and personal growth goals.
- Works best for clients who are motivated and willing to explore themselves.
Psychoanalytic Therapy
- Useful for deep-rooted problems and personality issues.
- Takes longer time and is less structured.
Group and Family Therapy
- Good for treating issues within relationships.
- Also helps with addiction, grief, and support building.
Conclusion
Various therapies produce good results in varying individuals, but all things considered, the general opinion is that C.B.T. works the best for the common mental problems, but humanistic therapy will be found to be excellent for personal understanding, emotional healing, and for healing of self-esteem. What is of most importance is the needs of the client, the skill of the therapist and the feeling of trust between both.
Question 7
Is there any harm in national stereotypes? Discuss the relevant factors which we need to take into consideration when we wish to build social harmony in society.
Introduction
National stereotypes are generalised beliefs or fixed ideas about people from a particular country or nation. These beliefs can be positive or negative, but they are usually oversimplified and not always true. For example, saying “all Germans are serious”, or “all Pakistanis are emotional” are forms of national stereotyping. While they may seem harmless at times, they can cause serious problems in society and international relations.
Harms of National Stereotypes
1. Creates Misunderstanding
When people believe in stereotypes, they fail to understand the individual differences within a nation. This leads to wrong assumptions about others.
2. Increases Discrimination and Prejudice
Negative stereotypes lead to bias and unfair treatment. For example, people may not give jobs or respect to someone because of where they come from.
3. Damages Social Unity
In multicultural countries, stereotypes about different groups create division, mistrust, and social tension.
4. Affects International Relations
Countries may develop diplomatic tensions if their people are always judged through national stereotypes in global media or politics.
5. Lowers Self-Esteem
Victims of stereotypes may feel ashamed or unaccepted, especially when living abroad. It also affects their confidence and performance.
6. Spreads Through Media and Internet
Movies, TV shows, and social media often spread stereotypes and make them look normal, especially among youth.
Factors to Consider for Building Social Harmony
1. Education and Awareness
Teach students from early age to respect diversity, understand different cultures, and think critically before believing in stereotypes.
2. Intercultural Communication
Encourage dialogue and exchange programs between different communities and nations. The more people meet, the more they understand each other.
3. Media Responsibility
TV, films, and social media platforms must avoid promoting racial or national biases. They should highlight positive stories from all nations.
4. Promote Common Human Values
Emphasize peace, respect, and justice as values shared by all people, regardless of nationality.
5. Equal Rights and Fair Laws
Ensure all groups in society have equal opportunities in jobs, education, and services. This reduces jealousy and promotes inclusion.
6. Strong Leadership
Political and community leaders must set an example by using language of unity, not hate. They should avoid speeches that divide people.
7. Celebrate Cultural Diversity
National events, school activities, and public programs should promote cultural richness rather than ignoring or mocking differences.
Conclusion
National stereotypes may seem small, but they have the power to damage social bonds and global peace. In a world that is more connected than ever before, we must learn to accept and understand each other beyond nationality. Only through education, mutual respect, fair treatment, and responsible leadership, we can build a society that values harmony and respects every individual for who they are, not where they are from.
Question 8
Write comprehensive notes on any TWO of the following:
a. Stress is linked to illness, with examples
b. Consequences of redundancy and unemployment
c. Role of the reinforcer in classical and instrumental conditioning
a. Stress is Linked to Illness, with Examples
Introduction
Stress is a natural reaction of the body when we face pressure, fear, or any demanding situation. But when stress becomes long-term or too strong, it starts to harm our body and mind. Many illnesses today are caused or worsened by stress.
How Stress Affects the Body?
- Immune System Weakens:
- Under stress, the body produces cortisol, a hormone that can weaken the immune system.
- Result: The person gets sick more often (like flu or infections).
- Heart Problems:
- Constant stress increases blood pressure and heartbeat.
- This can cause heart attacks or strokes.
- Stomach and Digestion:
- Stress can lead to ulcers, diarrhea, or constipation.
- People may eat too much or too little.
- Mental Health Issues:
- Long-term stress leads to anxiety, depression, and insomnia.
- Example: Students under exam stress may feel panic or lose sleep.
- Skin and Hair Issues:
- Stress can cause acne, rashes, or even hair fall.
Examples
- A man who lost his job suffers from stress → He develops high blood pressure and sleep issues.
- A student preparing for CSS exam feels constant stress → She starts getting stomach pain and headaches.
Conclusion
Stress is not just in the mind – it affects the whole body. If not managed well, it can lead to serious illness. Relaxation, proper sleep, exercise, and talking to someone can help reduce stress and improve health.
b. Consequences of Redundancy and Unemployment
Introduction
When a person loses their job because the company no longer needs their position, it is called redundancy. Unemployment is when someone is willing to work but has no job. Both conditions have serious effects on a person’s mental, emotional, social, and financial life.
Consequences
- Financial Stress:
- The person may struggle to pay bills or support their family.
- Leads to debt and poverty in many cases.
- Low Self-Esteem:
- People feel worthless or useless when they can’t earn.
- May feel ashamed in front of family or friends.
- Mental Health Issues:
- Depression, anxiety, and even suicidal thoughts can appear.
- Long-term unemployment is strongly linked with emotional breakdown.
- Social Isolation:
- The person may avoid social gatherings or feel embarrassed to talk about their situation.
- Family Problems:
- Stress can cause fights and tension at home.
- Spouses and children may also suffer.
- Skill Loss:
- When people stay jobless for a long time, they may forget or lose skills.
- Makes it harder to get a new job later.
Example
- A factory closes, and hundreds lose jobs. Many of them struggle to find new work, leading to depression, loans, and social unrest in the area.
Conclusion
Redundancy and unemployment are not just economic issues – they affect every part of a person’s life. Governments and society must work to create jobs, provide training, and give support to unemployed people to reduce these negative effects.
c. Role of the Reinforcer in Classical and Instrumental Conditioning
Introduction
A reinforcer is anything that increases the chance of a behaviour happening again. It plays a very important role in both classical and instrumental (or operant) conditioning, but in different ways.
In Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- A reinforcer is not directly used like in operant conditioning.
- Here, association is made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
- Reinforcement happens through repetition.
Example:
- Pavlov gave food (UCS) after ringing a bell (NS).
- The dog started to salivate (CR) when it heard the bell.
- The food acts as a natural reinforcer.
In Instrumental Conditioning (Skinner)
- Reinforcers are central to this type of learning.
- The behaviour is either strengthened or weakened based on what follows it.
Types of Reinforcers
- Positive Reinforcement:
- Giving something pleasant after a behaviour.
- Example: Giving a chocolate when child does homework.
- Negative Reinforcement:
- Removing something unpleasant after a behaviour.
- Example: Removing loud noise when rat presses a lever.
Difference
- Classical → automatic behaviour + pairing
- Operant → voluntary behaviour + reinforcement
Conclusion
In both types of conditioning, reinforcers are very important. In classical conditioning, they help build associations. In instrumental conditioning, they help shape behaviour by rewards or removal of discomfort. Understanding reinforcers is key in learning, teaching, and behaviour control.
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