CSS Past Paper 2020 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2)
CSS | Past Paper | Group 7 | 2020 | Part 2 | Descriptive
Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2020 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2).
Question 2
What is street smartness? How Gardner’s approach differs from the other theories of intelligence?
Introduction
Street smartness is a kind of practical intelligence. It means a person knows how to deal with real-life situations wisely. These people can handle daily challenges, solve problems quickly, and understand others very well. Street smart people may not always be book smart, but they know how to survive and succeed in everyday life. This is closely related to what Howard Gardner called interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence in his theory of multiple intelligences.
What is Street Smartness?
Street smartness is the ability to deal with difficult or unexpected situations in life using common sense, quick thinking, and social skills. These people:
- Know how to communicate well.
- Understand people’s behavior.
- Can protect themselves in tough situations.
- Are good at solving problems without depending on books or theories.
Example: A street smart person can bargain in a market, avoid scams, or calm someone down in an argument — even if they don’t have high academic grades.
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner, a psychologist from Harvard University, said that intelligence is not just about math and language (which most schools focus on). He gave the idea that there are 8 types of intelligence, and each person can have strength in one or more of them.
- Linguistic Intelligence – good with words (e.g. writers, poets)
- Logical-Mathematical Intelligence – good at logic and math (e.g. scientists)
- Musical Intelligence – good at music and rhythms
- Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence – good with body movement (e.g. athletes, dancers)
- Spatial Intelligence – good at visualizing things (e.g. architects)
- Interpersonal Intelligence – understanding others (street smartness fits here)
- Intrapersonal Intelligence – understanding oneself
- Naturalistic Intelligence – understanding nature and environment
He later suggested a 9th intelligence: existential intelligence – thinking deeply about life and existence.
How Gardner’s Theory Differs from Other Theories?
| Point | Gardner’s Theory | Other Theories (like Spearman, Sternberg, etc.) |
| View of Intelligence | Intelligence is multi-dimensional. | Intelligence is mostly one-dimensional. |
| Types of Intelligence | 8 or 9 types (beyond just logic and language) | Focus mainly on IQ, logical and verbal abilities. |
| Focus | Real-life abilities like social, musical, body movement, etc. | Mostly academic and cognitive skills. |
| Testing | Hard to measure with standard IQ tests. | Easy to measure with IQ and aptitude tests. |
| Example | A dancer or salesman is intelligent in their own way. | A person is intelligent only if they score high on IQ tests. |
Conclusion
Street smartness is a very useful kind of intelligence in daily life. It helps people solve real problems and deal with others wisely. Gardner’s theory gives value to this kind of intelligence, while many older theories only focus on bookish knowledge. His approach is more practical and accepts that intelligence has many faces, not just one. This is why Gardner’s theory is more flexible and realistic than traditional theories.
Question 3
What is the rationale behind using projective tests of personality? How TAT and Rorschach Ink Blot tests are different in terms of their structure and psychometric qualities?
Introduction
Psychologists attempt to measure personality in order to better understand behavior. Two kinds of tests are used by psychologists to gather information of this character. The first are called objective tests, as for example, various forms of multiple-choice tests. The other kinds of tests are called projective tests. The projective tests are distinctive in that they are made to get at the unconscious mind. They are based on the theory that people will “project” their own feelings and thoughts upon something vague and unclear.
Rationale Behind Using Projective Tests
The theory of projective tests is that when a person is given an unclear picture, or some unclear situation, he gives an explanation of that situation which is based upon his own hidden wishes, emotions, thoughts, and conflicts. These tests do not have any direct question so that it is impossible for a person to cheat, or answer insincerely.
Key Reasons for Using Projective Tests
- Uncover Unconscious Feelings
These tests will give up thoughts and desires of the person taking the tests, and frequently he does not realize his desires. - Less Social Desirability Bias
The variation of the questions does not lead to the idea that a person will try and give a “correct” or socially acceptable answer. - Useful for Diagnosing Mental Disorders
They are useful in the diagnosis of all diseases, as the different types of depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, etc. - Flexible and Open-Ended
The person is free to answer according to the way he feels, and the answers are individual to the person. - Can Explore Deep Personality Layers
They are effective means of exploring the depths of personality beyond mere external behavior.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- Developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan.
- Contains 30 black-and-white pictures (plus 1 blank card).
- The images show people in different situations. The person is asked to tell a story about each picture.
- The story should include:
- What is happening?
- What led to this situation?
- What are the characters feeling?
- What will happen next?
Purpose: To reveal the person’s needs, emotions, conflicts, and interpersonal relationships.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
- Developed by Hermann Rorschach.
- Contains 10 inkblot cards (some black and white, some with colors).
- The person is shown each card and asked, “What might this be?”
- There are no right or wrong answers. The psychologist notes what the person sees, how they react, and how they explain their answer.
Purpose: To explore deep unconscious processes, especially in cases of severe psychological issues.
Comparison of TAT and Rorschach Test
| Point | TAT | Rorschach |
| Stimulus | Real-life pictures with human scenes | Abstract inkblots |
| Response Type | Storytelling | Free association (what do you see?) |
| Focus | Social relationships, motivations, conflicts | Deep emotional and unconscious functioning |
| Structure | Structured storytelling (beginning, middle, end) | No fixed structure |
| Scoring | Somewhat more structured; themes and content can be analyzed | Complex scoring systems (like Exner system), harder to standardize |
| Usefulness | Good for normal personality study and interpersonal issues | Mostly used for diagnosing serious mental illnesses |
| Psychometric Qualities | Moderate reliability and validity | Low to moderate reliability; validity is debated |
Conclusion
Projective tests are very useful tools for exploring the hidden side of personality. They help psychologists understand people in a deeper way, especially when objective tests fall short. TAT and Rorschach are the two most famous projective tests, but they are quite different in style, structure, and what they aim to find out. Both have strengths and weaknesses, but together they give a more complete picture of a person’s inner world.
Question 4
Enlist positive and negative symptoms along with different types of schizophrenia. Give the major plan of management of schizophrenia.
Introduction
Schizophrenia is a chronic and severe mental disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. People with schizophrenia may seem like they have lost touch with reality. It usually appears in late teens or early adulthood. The exact cause is not fully known, but it involves genetic, biological, and environmental factors.
Positive and Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Positive Symptoms (these are “extra” behaviors not seen in healthy people)
- Hallucinations – hearing voices or seeing things that are not real.
- Delusions – false beliefs that are not based in reality (e.g., thinking someone is spying on them).
- Disorganized Speech – jumping from topic to topic, speaking nonsense.
- Disorganized or Catatonic Behavior – strange movements or complete lack of movement.
These are called “positive” because something unusual is added to the person’s behavior.
Negative Symptoms (these are “missing” normal behaviors)
- Flat Affect – lack of emotional expression.
- Alogia – very limited speech or no speech.
- Anhedonia – inability to enjoy normal activities.
- Avolition – lack of motivation to start or finish tasks.
- Social Withdrawal – avoiding people and isolating oneself.
These are called “negative” because something normal is taken away from the person’s behavior.
Types of Schizophrenia
Although modern diagnosis (DSM-5) no longer recognizes subtypes of schizophrenia, they are helpful in understanding the disorder:
- Paranoid Schizophrenia
- Strong delusions and hallucinations.
- Often involves themes of persecution or grandiosity.
- Thinking is more organized than other types.
- Disorganized (Hebephrenic) Schizophrenia
- Disorganized speech and behavior.
- Flat or inappropriate emotions.
- Hard to communicate or understand the person.
- Catatonic Schizophrenia
- Major disturbance in movement.
- Person might stay still for hours or show strange postures.
- May also repeat words or movements.
- Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
- Shows symptoms of different types but does not clearly fit one.
- Residual Schizophrenia
- Person had symptoms in the past but now only shows mild signs like odd beliefs or social withdrawal.
Major Plan of Management of Schizophrenia
The treatment of schizophrenia should be a multilateral effort. There is no cure for the disease, but symptoms can be controlled.
1. Medication
- Antipsychotic Drugs (e.g., Risperidone, Olanzapine) are the main treatment.
- Help reduce hallucinations and delusions.
- Side effects need to be monitored.
2. Psychotherapy
- Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps the person challenge false beliefs.
- Improves thinking and coping skills.
3. Family Therapy
- Educates the family about the illness.
- Reduces stress and improves support for the patient.
4. Social Skills Training
- Helps patient communicate better and function in society.
- Builds independence.
5. Hospitalization (in severe cases)
- Needed if the person becomes dangerous or can’t take care of themselves.
6. Vocational Training and Rehabilitation
- Helps patients find and keep jobs.
- Encourages social reintegration.
7. Community Support Programs
- Day centers, group homes, and case management services to provide long-term help.
Conclusion
Schizophrenia is a complicated mental illness with positive and negative symptoms. Its types point out to how the disease may affect others. Proper treatment, including medication, education in self-management, social help, etc., may enable patients to live life better. Early diagnosis and consistent treatment are basic to bettering of conditions, if not preventing recurrences.
Question 5
How construct validity of psychological tests is determined by employing different psychometric procedures?
Introduction
In psychology, tests are used measure things like intelligence, personality, and mental health. Unless measures are valid, they can be of little use. In order for there tests to be useful, they must be valid, valid meaning that they should measure what they are supposed to. One of the most important of the kinds of validity is the construct validity. This tells one whether the test does indeed measure the construct behind it (in theoretical terms) such as depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. The construct is an important aspect of the test.
What is Construct Validity?
Construct validity means that the test is accurately measuring the invisible psychological trait (the “construct”) it was designed for. For example, a depression test should really be measuring symptoms of depression, not just sadness or tiredness.
It answers the question:
“Is this test really measuring what it says it’s measuring?”
Psychometric Procedures to Determine Construct Validity
Psychologists use many methods to prove construct validity. Below are the most common ones:
1. Factor Analysis
- This is a statistical technique.
- It groups test items that measure the same underlying trait.
- If a test has good construct validity, items that measure the same idea will load on the same factor.
Example: In a self-esteem test, questions about confidence and self-worth should all load on one factor.
2. Convergent Validity
- It shows that the test correlates well with other tests that measure the same construct.
Example: A new anxiety test should have a strong positive correlation with an already well-known anxiety test.
3. Discriminant (Divergent) Validity
- It shows that the test does not correlate with tests measuring different constructs.
Example: A test for anxiety should not have a high correlation with a test for intelligence. If it does, then maybe it’s not measuring anxiety properly.
4. Hypothesis Testing
- If the test truly measures a certain construct, then it should behave as expected in experiments.
- Psychologists form hypotheses based on theory and check if test results support them.
Example: If people score high on a depression test, they should also show symptoms like low energy and poor sleep.
5. Known Groups Method
- The test is given to two or more groups that are already known to differ in the construct.
- If the test can clearly distinguish between them, it supports construct validity.
Example: A test for social anxiety should give higher scores for people diagnosed with social anxiety than those without it.
6. Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix (MTMM)
- This is an advanced method that checks both convergent and discriminant validity at the same time.
- It uses multiple traits and multiple methods to compare results.
Example: Measuring anxiety and depression using both questionnaires and interviews to check the pattern of correlations.
7. Test-Retest Correlation (for stability)
- While not a direct measure of construct validity, a test should give consistent results over time if the construct is stable.
Example: An intelligence test should not give very different results if taken again after a week.
8. Expert Judgment
- Psychologists and subject experts review the test items to see if they match the theoretical definition of the construct.
- This step is usually done during test development.
Conclusion
Construct validity is one of the most important features of a psychological test. It helps us know if the test is meaningful and trustworthy. Psychometric methods like factor analysis, convergent/discriminant validity, and hypothesis testing are used to build and confirm this kind of validity. Without construct validity, a test is just a list of questions — it won’t tell us anything real about the person.
Question 6
How effectiveness of psychotherapy can be determined? Identify situations in which unconditional positive regard would be appropriate. How can CBT change the unhealthy state of a person?
Introduction
Psychotherapy is a method used by psychologists to treat mental and emotional problems through talking, understanding, and guidance. It helps people deal with stress, trauma, anxiety, depression, and many other issues. To see whether or not therapy is effective, psychologists use certain measuring devices to determine its efficacy. There are also different treatments, methods used, such as CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) and person-centered therapy. The following is one example of how each method may assess its work.
How Effectiveness of Psychotherapy Can Be Determined?
Psychotherapy is considered effective when the client shows improvement in behavior, emotions, thoughts, and daily functioning. Below are some ways to check if therapy is working:
1. Self-Report Measures
- Clients are given questionnaires or asked how they feel before and after sessions.
- Example: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), used to track improvement in depression.
2. Behavioral Observations
- Therapist observes changes in the client’s actions (e.g., better communication, less anxiety in social situations).
- These changes can be noticed during or outside sessions.
3. Goal Achievement
- At the beginning, therapist and client set clear goals.
- Progress is measured by checking if these goals are achieved over time (e.g., reducing panic attacks, improving sleep).
4. Feedback from Others
- Sometimes, input from family members, teachers, or coworkers is taken to see if the client’s behavior is improving in real life.
5. Psychological Testing
- Pre- and post-therapy standardized tests are used to measure changes in mental health.
6. Session Recording and Review
- Sessions are sometimes recorded (with permission) to analyze progress over time.
Unconditional Positive Regard and When It Is Appropriate
Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR) is a concept by Carl Rogers, used in Person-Centered Therapy. It means the therapist accepts and respects the client no matter what, without judgment.
Situations Where UPR Is Appropriate
- Clients with Low Self-Esteem
- When someone feels worthless, they need acceptance to rebuild self-worth.
- Victims of Abuse or Trauma
- They often blame themselves. UPR helps them feel safe and accepted.
- Teenagers with Identity Issues
- Young people confused about who they are need non-judgmental support.
- People with Guilt or Shame
- Those struggling with mistakes or regrets need acceptance to heal.
- During Emotional Breakdowns
- Clients in crisis need a space where they won’t be judged.
UPR builds trust, makes the client open up, and encourages healing through acceptance.
How CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) Changes Unhealthy States?
CBT is a popular type of therapy that works by changing negative thought patterns and unhelpful behaviors. It is structured, short-term, and goal-oriented.
Ways CBT Helps
- Identifies Negative Thoughts
- Helps people recognize thoughts like “I’m useless” or “Everyone hates me”.
- Challenges These Thoughts
- Client learns to question if these beliefs are true or just emotional reactions.
- Replaces with Positive Thinking
- Therapist teaches how to think in a more balanced and helpful way.
- Behavioral Activation
- Encourages client to take part in activities that improve mood.
- Teaches Coping Skills
- Helps deal with anxiety, anger, and stress in healthy ways.
Example
A socially anxious person thinks, if I talk, I will be embarrassed. Cognitive behavioral therapy helps him to recognize that this thought is not a realistic one and teaches him to gradually face the social situations that he meets with more realism.
Conclusion
The effectiveness of psychotherapy depends on how much the client improves mentally and emotionally. Therapists use many ways like self-reports, behavior observation, and goal tracking to check progress. Unconditional Positive Regard builds a strong, healing relationship, especially in sensitive cases. CBT, on the other hand, gives the client tools to challenge negative thoughts and build a healthier mindset. Together, these approaches help people live better and more balanced lives.
Question 7
Why do we tend to explain causes of others and our own behaviors? Compare and contrast the different theories of attribution.
Introduction
Anyone who stops to think about it will find himself frequently wondering why people are behaving the way they are, himself included. For instance, if one finds someone who is late for an engagement he may say, “That fellow is lazy,” but it could also be the tire had gone flat. This study of the cause or reason for the action of others is commonly termed “attribution,” that is, to seek the cause or reason of the behavior of others. Psychologists hold that man is forever looking for a cause for that which takes place around about him. This gives him knowledge that enables him to predict the actions of others in the future and how he will reply to said actions. But his reasons are not always correct, which has led to the production of attribution theories by psychologists.
Why Do We Make Attributions?
- To Understand the World
- We want to know why things happen. It gives us a sense of control.
- To Predict Behavior
- If we know why someone acts a certain way, we can expect how they’ll act next time.
- To Make Judgments
- We judge others based on the reasons we give for their behavior.
- To Protect Our Self-Image
- We explain our own mistakes in ways that protect our self-esteem.
Theories of Attribution
Here are the main theories that explain how and why we make attributions:
1. Heider’s Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)
- Heider is called the “father of attribution theory”.
- He said people are like “naive psychologists” who try to understand others.
- We make two types of attributions:
a. Internal (Dispositional): Behavior caused by personality or character.
→ Example: “She failed the exam because she’s careless”.
b. External (Situational): Behavior caused by environment or situation.
→ Example: “She failed because the paper was too hard”.
2. Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Davis)
- This theory says we try to find out if a person’s action truly reflects their personality.
- If someone does something unusual or unexpected, we are more likely to think it shows their real character.
Example: If a quiet person suddenly gets angry in public, we might think they are actually aggressive inside.
3. Kelley’s Covariation Model (Harold Kelley)
- He said people look at three types of information before making attributions:
a. Consensus – Do others behave the same way?
b. Consistency – Does this person always act like this?
c. Distinctiveness – Does this person behave like this in other situations?
Example: If Ali always comes late (high consistency), others are also late (high consensus), and he’s only late to work (high distinctiveness), then we may blame the situation (external cause).
4. Weiner’s Attribution Theory of Motivation
- He added emotional and motivational factors.
- Used mainly in achievement settings (like exams or sports).
- Three main dimensions:
a. Locus of control – Internal or external cause?
b. Stability – Is the cause stable or changeable?
c. Controllability – Can the person control it?
Example: If a student fails and blames low effort (internal, controllable), they might try harder next time.
Comparison of Theories
| Theory | Focus | Key Features |
| Heider | Basic idea of attribution | Internal vs External causes |
| Jones & Davis | Personality judgments | Based on unique or unexpected actions |
| Kelley | Uses logical information | Based on consensus, consistency, distinctiveness |
| Weiner | Focus on motivation and emotion | Locus, stability, controllability |
Errors in Attribution
Sometimes we make mistakes in attribution:
- Fundamental Attribution Error
- We blame others’ behavior on their personality, not their situation.
- Example: “He’s rude” (but maybe he just had a bad day).
- Self-Serving Bias
- We give credit to ourselves for success (internal) and blame failure on others (external).
- Example: “I passed because I’m smart, I failed because the teacher hates me”.
Conclusion
Attribution is a natural part of how we understand people. We try to explain why others act a certain way to make sense of the world. Many psychologists have given theories like Heider’s, Kelley’s, and Weiner’s to explain this process. These theories help us understand how we form opinions, make judgments, and sometimes even misunderstand people. Knowing about attribution also helps reduce bias and improve relationships.
Question 8
Why raw scores on a psychological test are meaningless until interpreted with norms? Differentiate between developmental norms and within group norms with reference to major types of norms.
Introduction
In psychology, tests are used to measure things like intelligence, personality, and mental health. After taking a test, a person gets a raw score — for example, 25 out of 40. But this number does not tell us much, by itself. To understand whether this test number is good or bad, or in the average Is, we must compare it with what we call norms. Without norms the raw scores are valueless, for they do not tell how the subject compares with other people.
Why Raw Scores Are Meaningless Without Norms?
A raw score is just the number of correct answers or points a person gets on a test. But this number doesn’t mean much on its own. Here’s why:
1. No Comparison
We don’t know how others performed. A score of 25 might be excellent or poor depending on the group.
2. No Standardization
Different tests have different difficulty levels. Without norms, scores from different tests can’t be compared.
3. No Interpretation of Ability
We can’t say if the person is above average, average, or below average.
4. Misleading Conclusions
Without norms, we may judge the score wrongly — thinking it’s high when it’s actually low.
What Are Norms in Psychological Testing?
Norms are the average scores collected from a large group of people. When someone takes a test, their score is compared to these norms to see how well they did.
Types of Norms Include:
- Percentile Ranks – shows the percentage of people who scored below a particular score.
- Standard Scores (Z-scores, T-scores) – shows how far a score is from the average.
- Stanines – divides scores into 9 broad categories.
Developmental Norms vs. Within-Group Norms
Let’s now look at the difference between these two types of norms:
1. Developmental Norms
These norms are based on age or grade level. They show what is typical at a certain stage of growth.
Examples:
- A 5-year-old’s vocabulary score is compared with other 5-year-olds.
- A child’s reading level is compared to their school grade.
Used For:
- Tracking growth or delay in children.
- Educational assessments.
- Identifying learning disabilities.
Important Point:
- Developmental norms help compare across ages or grades to see if someone is ahead, behind, or on track.
2. Within-Group Norms
These norms are based on a specific group, like people of the same gender, culture, job, or education level.
Examples:
- Comparing depression test scores among university students only.
- Comparing IQ scores within a certain profession.
Used For:
- Fair comparison within the same category.
- Reducing cultural or social bias.
Important Point:
- Within-group norms give more accurate and fair results when the group is similar.
Comparison Table
| Feature | Developmental Norms | Within-Group Norms |
| Based on | Age or grade level | A specific group (gender, culture, etc.) |
| Use | Tracking growth or delays | Fair comparison within similar group |
| Example | Child’s height compared to age group | IQ scores among engineers |
| Purpose | Identify stages of development | Remove bias and increase fairness |
Conclusion
Raw scores in psychology are like numbers without meaning until we compare them with norms. Norms give context, show performance level, and help make decisions in education, health, and jobs. Both developmental norms and within-group norms are important for different situations. Understanding and using the right type of norm ensures fairness and accuracy in testing.
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