CSS Past Paper 2021 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2)
CSS | Past Paper | Group 7 | 2021 | Part 2 | Descriptive
Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2021 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2).
Question 2
Define Personality. Discuss few major theories of personality in detail.
Introduction
Personality is what makes an individual unique. It includes a person’s basic psychological makeup: thoughts, feelings, activities, and habits. These traits and habits are usually relatively constant. So in simple terms, personality is the way a person thinks, feels, and behaves in various situations. Many psychological theories attempt to account for the development of personality and the individual differences in its expression. Each theory has its own thoughts and explicative concepts
Definition of Personality
According to Allport,
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”.
In easy words, personality is the total of one’s mental, emotional, and behavioral traits that define how a person responds to the world.
Major Theories of Personality
1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
Freud believed that personality is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.
Structure of Personality:
- Id: Present at birth, seeks pleasure, follows the “pleasure principle”.
- Ego: Deals with reality, follows the “reality principle”.
- Superego: The moral part, includes rules and conscience.
Stages of Psychosexual Development:
- Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital stages.
- Problems in these stages lead to fixations (e.g., oral fixation causes smoking, nail-biting).
Defense Mechanisms:
- Ego uses these to protect itself (e.g., denial, repression, projection).
2. Trait Theory (Eysenck and Big Five Model)
Trait theories say that personality is made up of stable traits or characteristics that can be measured.
Eysenck’s Theory:
- Three main traits:
- Extraversion vs. Introversion
- Neuroticism vs. Stability
- Psychoticism
Big Five Model (OCEAN):
- Openness – Creative, curious.
- Conscientiousness – Organized, responsible.
- Extraversion – Outgoing, talkative.
- Agreeableness – Kind, cooperative.
- Neuroticism – Anxious, moody.
These traits are used worldwide to describe and predict behavior.
3. Humanistic Theory (Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow)
This theory focuses on free will, self-growth, and human potential.
Carl Rogers:
- Believed in the Self-Concept (how we see ourselves).
- Said people need Unconditional Positive Regard (acceptance without judgment) to grow.
- Focused on actual self vs. ideal self – the closer they are, the healthier the personality.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
- From basic needs to self-actualization (reaching one’s full potential).
- Healthy personality is when a person is moving toward the top of the pyramid.
4. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)
This theory says personality is shaped by a mix of behavior, thoughts, and environment.
Main Ideas:
- Observational Learning: We learn by watching others.
- Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed.
- Reciprocal Determinism: Personality is formed by the interaction between person, environment, and behavior.
5. Biological Theory
- Says personality is influenced by genetics, brain structure, and hormones.
- Studies on twins show strong links between genes and personality traits.
- Certain brain chemicals (like dopamine) are linked to traits like extroversion.
Conclusion
Personality is a complex and complicated aspect of human psychology. Various theories have been proposed for its explanation, each from a different viewpoint; either as to submerged wishes, desires and impulses (Freud), as traits, customizable traits (Big Five traits) or self-actualization (Humanistic), or learning by way of the environment through experience (Social Cognitive). Each theory adds an important piece to understanding why people act the way they do.
Question 3
Differentiate between sensation and perception. Elaborate Gestalt Principles of perception.
Difference Between Sensation and Perception
Sensation and perception are two basic processes in psychology that help us understand the world around us. Many people think they are the same, but they are actually different.
| Sensation | Perception |
| It is the process of receiving raw data through our senses (like eyes, ears, skin, etc.). | It is the process of interpreting and making sense of that sensory information. |
| Sensation is passive. We just feel something through sense organs. | Perception is active. Our brain works to understand what we are sensing. |
| It is the first step in the process. | It is the second step, after sensation. |
| For example, hearing a sound is sensation. | Recognizing it as someone calling your name is perception. |
So basically, sensation is just the physical part, while perception is the mental part.
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Gestalt psychology was first presented to the world by a number of German psychologists including Max Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka with the saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”. In other words, the brain sees things not in their small parts, but as a whole, or pattern or quality.
The following are the more important Gestalt principles.
1. Law of Proximity
When objects are close to each other, we see them as a group.
Example: If you see dots that are close together, you will think they belong together.
2. Law of Similarity
We group similar things together, like things with same color, shape, or size.
Example: In a crowd, we easily notice a group of people wearing same uniform.
3. Law of Continuity
We prefer to see smooth, continuous lines instead of broken or zigzag patterns.
Example: A curving road is seen as one smooth path, not many small curves.
4. Law of Closure
Our brain fills the missing parts of an incomplete picture to see a full shape.
Example: Even if parts of a circle are missing, we still see it as a full circle.
5. Law of Figure and Ground
We separate objects (figure) from their background (ground). Sometimes, this can change depending on how we focus.
Example: In the famous “vase or two faces” image, we can see either the vase or the faces depending on what we focus on.
6. Law of Symmetry
We naturally see symmetrical things as one group or shape.
Example: If two parts of an image are equal on both sides, we group them easily.
Conclusion
Sensation and perception work together but are different. Sensation gives us raw input, and perception helps us understand it. Gestalt principles show us how our brain organizes what we see into meaningful patterns. These principles help in understanding art, design, and even solving visual illusions.
Question 4
Define psychological intervention. Discuss major therapeutic techniques introduced by clinical psychologists in different eras for the treatment of psychological disorders.
Definition of Psychological Intervention
Psychological intervention means making use of planned methods and techniques for helping the individual to overcome his mental, emotional, or behavioral difficulties. This is not meant by a mere talk, but special techniques developed by psychologists to treat such disorders as anxiety states, depression, phobia, etc. These are employed by clinical psychologists to help the individual’s mental health, behavior, and well-being as a whole.
Major Therapeutic Techniques Across Different Eras
Clinical psychology has passed many changes. Psychologists at different times have brought about new and useful forms of therapy. Some of the important ones are set forth below.
1. Psychoanalysis (Late 1800s – Early 1900s)
Founder: Sigmund Freud
- Focus: Unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
- Techniques:
- Free Association – Patient talks freely to reveal hidden thoughts.
- Dream Analysis – Analyzing dreams to understand unconscious issues.
- Transference – Patient’s feelings toward the therapist reflect real-life relationships.
Example: A person with anxiety might find out their problem started due to repressed childhood trauma.
2. Behavior Therapy (1950s – 1970s)
Key Figures: B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson
- Focus: Changing unhealthy behaviors using learning principles.
- Techniques:
- Systematic Desensitization – Used for phobias; slowly exposing person to fear.
- Token Economy – Rewards given for good behavior.
- Aversion Therapy – Making bad behavior unpleasant (e.g. adding bitter taste to nails to stop nail-biting).
Example: Someone afraid of heights is slowly exposed to increasing heights while being taught to relax.
3. Humanistic Therapy (1950s – 1960s)
Key Figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
- Focus: Personal growth, self-actualization, and free will.
- Techniques:
- Client-Centered Therapy – Therapist shows empathy, warmth, and listens without judging.
- Uses Unconditional Positive Regard to help the client feel accepted.
Example: A depressed person gains self-confidence after being heard and accepted.
4. Cognitive Therapy (1960s – 1980s)
Founder: Aaron Beck
- Focus: Changing negative and irrational thoughts.
- Techniques:
- Cognitive Restructuring – Replace negative thoughts with positive ones.
- Homework Assignments – Client writes down and challenges negative beliefs.
Example: A person who always thinks “I’m a failure” learns to replace it with “I’ve made mistakes, but I can improve”.
5. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) (1980s – Present)
- A mix of cognitive and behavior therapy.
- Very popular and widely used today.
- Techniques:
- Combines thought-changing with behavior-changing steps.
- Helps in treating anxiety, depression, PTSD, and more.
Example: A person with social anxiety learns how to manage fear by changing thinking and practicing social skills.
6. Mindfulness-Based Therapies (2000s – Present)
- Focus: Living in the present moment, accepting thoughts without judgment.
- Techniques:
- Mindfulness Meditation
- Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
- Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
Example: A person with stress learns to breathe deeply, calm the mind, and focus on now instead of worrying about future.
Conclusion
Psychological intervention has developed a lot from Freud’s time to modern day. Every era brought new ideas and techniques. Today, clinical psychologists use different therapies based on the client’s needs. The goal is always to reduce suffering and improve mental health using scientific methods.
Question 5
What are different leadership styles with reference to major leadership style theories? Elaborate the characteristics of transformational and transactional leaders with appropriate examples.
Introduction
Leadership is the ability to guide, influence, and motivate others to achieve a common goal. Different psychologists and researchers have studied how leaders behave and what styles they use. Over time, many theories and leadership styles have been introduced in psychology and management studies.
Major Leadership Styles (with Theories)
1. Autocratic Leadership
Theory Link: Classical Management Theory
- Leader makes all decisions alone.
- Doesn’t ask for team’s opinion.
- Useful in crisis but can lower morale.
Example: A military commander in war situation.
2. Democratic Leadership
Theory Link: Lewin’s Leadership Styles
- Leader involves team in decision-making.
- Encourages discussion and feedback.
- Increases motivation and creativity.
Example: A project manager who asks team for input before making changes.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Theory Link: Lewin’s Leadership Styles
- Leader gives full freedom to team.
- Only provides help when needed.
- Works well with experienced teams.
Example: A software team where developers manage their own tasks.
4. Transactional Leadership
Theory Link: Transactional Theory (Burns, 1978)
- Based on reward and punishment.
- Clear roles, rules, and tasks.
- Leader gives rewards for good work, and punishments for poor performance.
Example: A sales team leader who gives bonuses for meeting targets.
5. Transformational Leadership
Theory Link: Transformational Theory (Bass & Avolio, 1985)
- Inspires team to do more than expected.
- Focuses on vision, change, and motivation.
- Builds strong emotional connection with team.
Example: Steve Jobs motivating his team to create innovative Apple products.
Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership
| Aspect | Transactional Leader | Transformational Leader |
| Focus | Day-to-day tasks, short-term goals | Vision, long-term goals, change |
| Motivation Style | Rewards and punishments | Inspiration and personal connection |
| Change | Maintains existing system | Tries to bring change and improvement |
| Communication | Formal and structured | Open, passionate, motivating |
| Example | A bank manager who follows strict rules | A social leader who inspires people to fight for change |
Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
- Inspirational Motivation – Gives strong vision and encourages team.
- Idealized Influence – Acts as a role model.
- Individualized Consideration – Cares about each person’s growth.
- Intellectual Stimulation – Promotes creativity and new ideas.
Characteristics of Transactional Leaders
- Clear Instructions – Tells what to do and how.
- Contingent Rewards – Gives rewards if tasks are done properly.
- Active Management – Watches performance closely.
- Disciplinary Actions – Punishes mistakes or rule-breaking.
Conclusion
Leadership styles depend on the situation, type of task, and team members. Both transformational and transactional leaders are important. While transformational leaders bring change and motivation, transactional leaders make sure the system runs smoothly. A good leader knows when to use each style.
Question 6
Differentiate between Objective and Projective Tests in Psychology. Elaborate the rationale behind Projective tests with examples of TAT with its structure, function and interpretation.
Introduction
Psychologists use different tests to understand a person’s personality, thoughts, emotions, and mental state. These tests are mainly divided into objective and projective types. Both have their own methods and uses in clinical and research settings.
Difference Between Objective and Projective Tests
| Aspect | Objective Tests | Projective Tests |
| Definition | Tests with fixed answers (like multiple choice or true/false). | Tests with open-ended responses based on interpretation. |
| Scoring | Scored in a standard way. | Scoring is subjective and based on psychologist’s judgment. |
| Structure | Clear, direct questions. | Unstructured, uses images or vague situations. |
| Response | Limited, fixed options. | Unlimited, open responses. |
| Example | MMPI, Big Five Inventory. | TAT, Rorschach Inkblot Test. |
Rationale Behind Projective Tests
Projective tests are based on Psychoanalytic Theory, especially ideas from Freud. The idea is that people may hide their true thoughts because they are afraid, ashamed, or unaware of them. When given ambiguous (unclear) images or situations, people will “project” their own inner feelings onto them.
This helps psychologists understand what’s going on deep inside the person’s unconscious mind.
Main idea: When a person doesn’t know what the picture means, their answer reflects their own personality, fears, wishes, or conflicts.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Developed by: Henry A. Murray and Christiana Morgan (1930s)
Structure
- TAT consists of 31 black-and-white pictures showing people in different situations.
- Out of these, usually 10 to 20 cards are selected based on age, gender, and situation of the person.
- There is also 1 blank card where the person can imagine any story.
Function
- The person is shown each picture one by one.
- They are asked to make up a story for each picture.
- The story should include:
- What is happening?
- What led up to this situation?
- What are the characters thinking and feeling?
- What will happen next?
This helps the psychologist find out about the person’s inner world, relationships, conflicts, and personality patterns.
Interpretation
There is no fixed scoring like in objective tests. Instead, psychologists analyze themes, emotions, and patterns in the stories. They look for:
- Repeated ideas or conflicts.
- How the person sees themselves and others.
- Signs of anxiety, fear, aggression, love, etc.
- Defense mechanisms being used (like denial, projection).
Example:
If a person always creates sad or violent endings, it might show inner sadness or unresolved anger.
Conclusion
Both objective tests and projective tests have been considered useful in psychology, but each has developed its own line of usefulness. So that in the main, objective tests have been better adapted for structured use and work of comparing results cross-sectionally on a number of individuals, while projective tests, such as TAT, have proved more helpful in gaining a deep insight into personality in those cases where direct expression of feelings is not made. Clinical psychologists, consequently, use both types depending on the nature of the case in hand.
Question 7
How is Forensic Psychology different from Forensic Science? Discuss major roles and responsibilities of Forensic Psychologists.
Introduction
Forensic psychology and forensic science both deal with crime and the legal system but they are not the same. Each is different and has separate areas of specialty. Forensic psychology deals more with the human mind and functioning whereas forensic science deals more with physical evidences such as blood, DNA, weapons, etc.
Difference Between Forensic Psychology and Forensic Science
| Aspect | Forensic Psychology | Forensic Science |
| Focus | Human behavior, mental health, and legal issues. | Physical evidence related to crime scenes. |
| Field | Psychology | Natural/Physical Science (Biology, Chemistry, etc.) |
| Main Work | Studying criminals, evaluating mental state, giving expert opinions in court. | Analyzing evidence like fingerprints, bullets, hair, etc. |
| Example | Finding if a person is mentally fit for trial. | Matching a bullet to the gun used in a murder. |
Who are Forensic Psychologists?
Forensic psychologists are trained professionals that work with the courts, police, and law-related fields. They apply knowledge of psychology, to assist in criminal investigations, interpretation of criminal behavior, and facilitate decision making in court.
Major Roles and Responsibilities of Forensic Psychologists
1. Mental Health Assessment of Criminals
- They check if a criminal is mentally fit to stand trial.
- Also assess if the person knew right or wrong during the crime (insanity defense).
Example: A person accused of murder may be mentally ill, and the court needs expert opinion.
2. Risk Assessment
- They judge how dangerous a criminal is.
- Help decide if someone should get parole, bail, or be kept in jail.
Example: In cases of repeat offenders or sexual crimes, they check if the person might do it again.
3. Criminal Profiling
- Forensic psychologists help create profiles of unknown criminals based on behavior patterns.
- Useful in serial murder, rape, and terrorism cases.
Example: Profiling a serial killer to find personality traits and predict next move.
4. Child Custody Evaluations
- In divorce or abuse cases, they evaluate which parent is better for the child.
- They look at parenting skills, emotional bonding, and child’s best interest.
5. Helping Victims
- They give counseling to victims of crime, like rape, abuse, or trauma.
- Help in rehabilitation and recovery.
6. Jury Selection and Courtroom Assistance
- Help lawyers choose fair jury members.
- Teach how to present psychological findings in simple language during court trials.
7. Working with Police
- Train police in negotiation, stress management, and understanding criminals.
- Help in interrogation techniques without violating human rights.
8. Expert Witness Testimony
- They appear in court as expert witnesses.
- Give opinions on mental state, memory, trauma, and behavior of people involved.
Conclusion
Forensic psychologists are psychologists who are knowledgeable in their field and work with courts, police, etc. and areas related to the law. They use their psychological knowledge to help in crime solving, understanding criminal behavior, etc. and helping in fair legal decisions which is done by understanding human behavior. Their work helps not only the courts but also the police, victims and society in general.
Question 8
Why is it important to determine validity of a test before using it with population? Also elaborate its major types with examples.
Introduction
In the field of psychology tests are used to test such things as intelligence, personality functioning, mental health, etc. We usually have to take many tests designed for this purpose but before any test can be given to people, we must be certain of the validity and reliability of the tests. A valid test measures exactly what it is supposed to measure. If a test is not valid, the results will be useless or even misleading.
Importance of Validity
- Accurate Measurement:
A valid test gives correct results. For example, an intelligence test should measure intelligence, not memory or language skills. - Useful Decision Making:
Psychologists, teachers, doctors, and employers use test results to make decisions. If the test is valid, decisions will be fair and helpful. - Saves Time and Resources:
Using a valid test saves effort and avoids repeating tests or making wrong judgments. - Ethical Responsibility:
Testing affects real people’s lives. Giving an invalid test can cause stress, wrong treatment, or unfair rejection. - Scientific Value:
Validity gives credibility to research. Without it, findings won’t be trusted.
Major Types of Validity (with Examples)
1. Content Validity
- Checks if the test covers all parts of the subject it wants to measure.
- Experts examine the test items.
Example:
A psychology exam with questions only on memory and not on learning or emotion will have low content validity.
2. Construct Validity
- Measures if the test really checks the theoretical concept (construct) it claims to measure.
Example:
A depression test should actually measure signs of depression like sadness, hopelessness, fatigue—not just general sadness or stress.
Subtypes of Construct Validity:
- Convergent Validity: Test is similar to other tests of the same construct.
- Divergent (Discriminant) Validity: Test is different from tests measuring unrelated constructs.
3. Criterion Validity
- Compares the test with some standard or outcome.
Types:
a) Predictive Validity:
Test predicts future behavior.
Example:
An SAT test is valid if it can predict college performance.
b) Concurrent Validity:
Test results agree with other current valid measures.
Example:
A new anxiety test gives similar results as an already trusted anxiety scale.
4. Face Validity (Not a scientific type, but still considered)
- How much the test looks like it measures what it should.
Example:
A math test with only math questions has good face validity.
Note: This type is more about appearance than actual accuracy.
Conclusion
Validity is the backbone of any psychological test. Without it, results are meaningless and can even be harmful. Psychologists must always check for content, construct, and criterion validity before using a test with any population. A valid test gives us truth, clarity, and confidence in both research and real-life situations.
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