CSS Past Paper 2022 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2)
CSS | Past Paper | Group 7 | 2022 | Part 2 | Descriptive
Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2022 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2).
Question 2
What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology? What are psychology’s key issues and controversies?
Introduction
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Today, there are many methods psychologists use to investigate human thoughts, feelings and behavior. These methods are known as theories or approaches. Each theory emphasizes different aspects of human behavior.
Major Approaches in Contemporary Psychology
- Biological Approach
- This approach focuses on how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics influence behavior.
- For example, people with depression may have low levels of serotonin.
- Brain scans like MRI and CT are used in this field.
- Behavioral Approach
- This one is based on observable behaviors.
- It says behavior is learned from the environment (through conditioning).
- Famous psychologists: John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.
- Example: A child fears dogs because of a past scary experience.
- Cognitive Approach
- This approach studies how people think, remember, learn, and solve problems.
- It focuses on internal mental processes.
- Example: People with anxiety may have negative thinking patterns.
- Humanistic Approach
- Humanism believes people have free will and strive to reach their full potential (self-actualization).
- Key figures: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
- It is a very positive approach focusing on personal growth.
- Psychodynamic Approach
- Based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud.
- It studies unconscious desires, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts.
- Example: A person’s current fear might be caused by childhood trauma.
- Evolutionary Approach
- It explains behavior based on natural selection and survival.
- It says that behavior helps us survive and pass on genes.
- Example: Fear of snakes may be a survival instinct from ancestors.
- Sociocultural Approach
- It focuses on how society, culture, and social interaction affect behavior.
- Example: Greeting styles vary from culture to culture.
Key Issues and Controversies in Psychology
- Nature vs. Nurture
- Is behavior caused by genetics (nature) or environment and experience (nurture)?
- Most psychologists today believe it’s a mix of both.
- Conscious vs. Unconscious Behavior
- Some psychologists believe behavior is influenced by conscious thoughts.
- Others say the unconscious mind plays a bigger role (like in Freud’s theory).
- Free Will vs. Determinism
- Do we choose our actions (free will), or is everything controlled by outside forces (determinism)?
- Behaviorists believe in determinism, humanists in free will.
- Stability vs. Change
- Do our personalities stay the same or change over time?
- Some theories say traits are stable, others believe people grow and change.
- Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles
- Are psychological findings true for all humans or just for specific individuals?
- Example: Intelligence tests may not work the same in every culture.
Conclusion
Psychology is a broad and diversified field. Each theory adds to our understanding of behavior in a different way. The different issues and controversies in psychology emphasize the complexity of human behavior and prove that no one theory is sufficient. The combination of theoretical approaches gives a better view of the how and the why of our behavior.
Question 3
Define intelligence. Differentiate between fluid and crystalized intelligence. Explain why crystallized intelligence is more a reflection of culture as compared to fluid intelligence?
Introduction
Intelligence is one of the few areas of psychology that is widely studied. It is a factor in discovering how people think, learn, solve problems and adapt to their environments. Psychologists have different definitions of intelligence, but most agree it includes abilities like reasoning, understanding, learning, and memory.
Definition of Intelligence
According to Wechsler,
“Intelligence is the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”.
In simple words, intelligence is the ability to understand things, learn from experience, and apply knowledge in real life.
Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Raymond Cattell and John Horn introduced the idea of two types of intelligence:
| Aspect | Fluid Intelligence | Crystallized Intelligence |
| Meaning | The ability to solve new problems without past experience. | Knowledge gained from past learning and experience. |
| Depends on | Biology and brain power | Culture, education, and environment |
| Example | Solving a puzzle or logical reasoning test | Vocabulary, general knowledge, and facts |
| Age effect | Decreases with age | Increases or stays stable with age |
| Flexibility | Very flexible and adaptive | More fixed, based on what is already known |
| Test type | IQ tests that measure problem-solving skills | School exams or general knowledge quizzes |
Why Crystallized Intelligence is More a Reflection of Culture?
Crystallized intelligence develops from education, language, environment, and social interaction. Here’s why it reflects culture more than fluid intelligence:
- Learning Depends on Culture
- The type of education, language spoken, and cultural values affect what people learn.
- For example, someone raised in Japan may know a lot about Japanese history, but not much about Pakistani politics.
- Social Environment Shapes Knowledge
- People from different cultures learn different skills and knowledge based on what their society teaches.
- A child in a Western country might grow up learning about computers earlier than a child in a rural village.
- Language and Communication
- Crystallized intelligence is measured by tests of vocabulary and reading comprehension, which reflect the language of one’s culture.
- Cultural Norms Influence Learning
- Some cultures tend more toward memorization and some toward creative thinking. This in turn reflects the type of information that is stored in the form of crystallized intelligence.
- Educational System
- The kind and quality of education people receive varies with their country or culture and this has a direct bearing on the level of crystallized intelligence.
Conclusion
Both types of intelligence are important. Fluid intelligence enables us to adapt to new situations; crystallized intelligence makes available to us in our everyday living the tools and knowledge which we need. Crystallized intelligence, however, is more influenced by culture because it depends on what we learn from our environment, education and experience. Together, the two types give a complete picture of human intelligence.
Question 4
Define emotions and describe how James-Lange and Cannon Bard theories of emotions differ in the role of arousal in emotions, along with examples and limitations.
Introduction
Emotions are a natural part of human existence. They are a consequence of our ideas, characteristics, and actions. They exist for us to react to people, ideas, and things that affect us, such as danger, joy, sadness, etc.
Definition of Emotions
Emotions are defined as:
“A state of psychological nature that involves three processes: a feeling state (how we feel), a physiological reaction (how our body responds), and a tendency to act in a certain way (what we do)”.
For example, when we feel fear, our heart beats faster, we feel nervous, and maybe we run away.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
- This is one of the oldest theories, given by William James and Carl Lange in the late 1800s.
- They believed that body arousal comes first, and then the emotion is felt.
Main Idea
Stimulus → Physiological Arousal → Emotion
Example
You see a snake → Your body starts shaking and heart beats fast → You feel fear
So, “I am afraid because I am trembling”.
Limitations
- Some emotions happen too fast for the body to react first.
- People with spinal injuries (who don’t feel body arousal) still feel emotions.
- Body changes can be similar in different emotions (e.g. fear and excitement).
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
- This theory was proposed by Walter Cannon and later updated by Philip Bard.
- They disagreed with James-Lange and said that emotion and body arousal happen at the same time, not one after another.
Main Idea
Stimulus → Brain (Thalamus) → Emotion + Physiological Arousal
Example
You see a snake → Your brain sends signals → You feel fear and your heart races at the same time.
So, “I am afraid and trembling at the same time”.
Limitations
- It puts too much importance on the thalamus only, but now we know other brain areas like the amygdala also play a role.
- It doesn’t explain why people with the same physical arousal feel different emotions.
Comparison Table
| Feature | James-Lange Theory | Cannon-Bard Theory |
| Order of response | Arousal first, then emotion | Emotion and arousal happen together |
| Brain role | Focuses on body reactions | Focuses on brain (thalamus) |
| Example | “I feel afraid because I tremble” | “I feel afraid and tremble at same time” |
| Limitation | Can’t explain fast emotions | Over-focus on thalamus |
Conclusion
Knowledge of emotions is important to psychology because they influence us physically as well as mentally. James-Lange postulated that our physical response comes first and is followed by our emotional response, while Cannon-Bard postulated that the two go on at the same time. Each has its points of strength and weakness, but at the present time, psychologists are coming to the conclusion that emotions are complex matters involving many parts of the brain which work together.
Question 5
Explain how the right to privacy, anonymity, and informed consent relate to psychological testing? Describe the issues associated with test takers from multicultural backgrounds.
Introduction
Psychological tests are used to measure intelligence, personality, ability, and mental health, but it is important to safeguard the rights of the individual under test conditions. Among these safeguards are rights to privacy, anonymity, and informed consent. These are part of ethical rules in psychology.
1. Right to Privacy
- Meaning: The test taker has the right to keep their personal thoughts, feelings, and results private.
- Psychologists should not force someone to share more than they are comfortable with.
- Test results should only be used for the purpose they were taken for.
- For example, a person giving a depression test should not have their results shared without permission.
2. Right to Anonymity
- Meaning: The identity of the test taker should not be revealed.
- The results should be coded or kept under fake names if possible.
- This protects the person from being judged or discriminated against.
- For example, in a classroom IQ test, the names should not be announced with scores.
3. Informed Consent
- Meaning: The person should know why the test is being taken, how it will be used, and what it includes — before they agree to take it.
- The person must agree freely without pressure.
- In case of children or people with mental illness, consent must be taken from parents or legal guardians.
- Example: A psychologist must explain a personality test to the client clearly before starting it.
Why These Rights Matter in Testing?
- They build trust between the psychologist and the test taker.
- They protect the dignity and freedom of individuals.
- They make the testing ethical and professional.
- They stop misuse of results by others (like employers or schools).
Issues with Test Takers from Multicultural Backgrounds
Psychological tests are often made in Western countries, so they may not always be fair or accurate for people from different cultures.
1. Language Barriers
- Tests in English can confuse non-native speakers.
- A person may have high intelligence but score low because of language difficulty.
2. Cultural Bias
- Some test questions may be based on Western lifestyle, which others may not understand.
- For example, asking about skiing or baseball in a rural area of Pakistan is unfair.
3. Different Communication Styles
- Some cultures are more expressive, others are more reserved.
- This affects how they respond in interviews or self-report tests.
4. Value Differences
- What is considered “normal” in one culture may be seen differently in another.
- Example: In some cultures, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect, but Western tests may see it as a sign of shyness or anxiety.
5. Lack of Representation
- Most psychological tests are normed on Western samples.
- People from other regions may not match those standards.
Solutions to These Issues
- Use culture-fair or non-verbal tests like Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
- Translate and adapt tests into the local language.
- Involve cultural experts when interpreting results.
- Make local norms for test scores.
Conclusion
Psychological tests must safeguard the privacy, anonymity, and informed consent of the individual. The psychologist is responsible for the observance of these ethical principles. In addition, test masses from the multicultural backgrounds often get unfairness because of the difficulty of differences in language, culture, etc. Psychologists should be aware of these problems at all times in order that fairness and equality may be promoted in psychometric testing.
Question 6
Differentiate between the Kohlberg and Gilligan approaches to moral development during adolescents and early adulthood.
Introduction
Moral development refers to the way that people learn to be able to distinguish between right and wrong. Two well-known child psychologists, Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan, differed in their views of how humans, especially adolescents and young adults, morally develop. Both emphasized the changing thought patterns on moral issues as people grow older, but they elaborated in different directions.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
- Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s work and gave a stage theory of moral development.
- He believed moral reasoning develops in three levels with six stages.
- His theory was based on justice, fairness, and law.
- He mostly studied boys and focused more on logic than feelings.
Three Levels of Kohlberg’s Theory
- Pre-conventional Level(childhood)
- Stage 1: Obedience and punishment (Do something to avoid punishment)
- Stage 2: Self-interest (Do something if there’s a reward)
- Conventional Level(adolescents)
- Stage 3: Good boy/good girl (Want approval from others)
- Stage 4: Law and order (Follow rules to keep society stable)
- Post-conventional Level(early adulthood for some)
- Stage 5: Social contract (Laws can be changed for the greater good)
- Stage 6: Universal ethical principles (Personal moral principles above law)
Example
A teenager may say stealing is wrong because laws must be followed (Stage 4), or because it violates human rights (Stage 6).
Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
- Carol Gilligan, a student of Kohlberg, criticized his theory for ignoring female perspective.
- She said women think about morality differently – more focused on care, relationships, and responsibility.
- Her theory is not based on justice but on ethics of care.
Three Stages of Gilligan’s Theory
- Orientation to Individual Survival
- Focus is on own needs and survival.
- Example: A young girl may only care about what helps her avoid trouble.
- Goodness as Self-Sacrifice
- Believes that being good means putting others first.
- Example: A teenage girl may ignore her own needs to please family or friends.
- Morality of Nonviolence
- Finds a balance between self-care and care for others.
- Avoids harm to self and others.
- Example: A young woman makes a decision that helps everyone involved, not just herself or others.
Comparison: Kohlberg vs. Gilligan
| Point | Kohlberg | Gilligan |
| Main focus | Justice, laws, fairness | Care, responsibility, relationships |
| Gender studied more | Boys | Girls/Women |
| Moral growth based on | Logical thinking, justice reasoning | Emotions, empathy, social connection |
| Criticism | Ignored female viewpoint | Some say she focused too much on gender |
| Approach type | More individualistic | More relational |
Relevance in Adolescents and Early Adulthood
- Kohlberg: Teens move from conventional to post-conventional reasoning, questioning laws and thinking about justice.
- Gilligan: Young people, especially girls, learn to balance care for self and others, focusing on not harming relationships.
Conclusion
Kohlberg and Gilligan presented a wealth of knowledge about moral development. Kohlberg emphasized rules and justice, whereas Gilligan incorporated the emotional aspect of caring. They both substantively contributed to an understanding of moral development as being more than just rules but the interpersonal dimension as well during the adolescent and early adult years.
Question 7
What are the major differences between trait, learning, biological, evolutionary, and humanistic approaches to personality?
Introduction
Personality is that which designs the thinking, feeling and acting patterns of each individual in unique ways. Psychologists have different concepts of how personality is developed and what it consists of. Some are concerned with traits, some with learning, some with biology, some with evolution and some with the urge for personal growth and development.
1. Trait Approach
- Focus: Identifying and measuring personality traits (stable characteristics).
- Traits are long-lasting patterns like being honest, shy, confident, etc.
- Famous theorists: Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Eysenck.
Example
Someone who scores high on “extroversion” is likely to be outgoing in most situations.
Key Features
- Traits are stable over time.
- They can be measured using personality tests.
- The Big Five Model (OCEAN) is popular: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
2. Learning Approach
- Focus: Personality is shaped by experience and environment.
- Based on behaviorism and social learning theory.
- Main theorists: B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning), Albert Bandura (social learning).
- People learn personality through rewards, punishments, and observing others.
Example
A child praised for being polite will repeat that behavior and become polite as part of their personality.
Key Features
- No focus on internal traits or biology.
- Emphasizes nurture more than nature.
- Personality can change with new experiences.
3. Biological Approach
- Focus: Personality is influenced by genetics, brain structure, and neurochemicals.
- Studies heredity, hormones, and nervous system activity.
- Twin studies show that some traits are inherited (like intelligence or temperament).
Example
A person might be naturally anxious because of an overactive amygdala or low serotonin levels.
Key Features
- Believes personality is mostly biologically fixed.
- Traits like aggressiveness or shyness may be linked to brain function.
4. Evolutionary Approach
- Focus: Personality traits help humans survive and reproduce.
- Based on Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
- Traits that helped early humans (like cooperation or bravery) got passed down.
Example
Being sociable might have helped our ancestors build stronger tribes, so it became a common trait.
Key Features
- Personality is shaped over generations.
- Explains universal traits (like fear of snakes, love for family).
5. Humanistic Approach
- Focus: Free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.
- Main theorists: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
- Believes every person is born good and wants to grow in a positive way.
Example
Someone who has supportive parents and good self-esteem will grow into a kind, confident person.
Key Features
- Focuses on conscious experiences, not unconscious or biological forces.
- Personality grows when basic needs are met (Maslow’s hierarchy).
- Emphasizes personal choice and self-worth.
Comparison Table
| Approach | Focus | Key Theorists | View on Personality |
| Trait | Stable characteristics | Allport, Cattell, Eysenck | Measurable, consistent traits |
| Learning | Environment and experience | Skinner, Bandura | Learned behavior, changes with situation |
| Biological | Brain, genes, hormones | Twin studies, neuroscience | Mostly inherited and stable |
| Evolutionary | Survival and reproduction | Darwin-based thinkers | Traits passed down for adaptation |
| Humanistic | Free will and self-growth | Rogers, Maslow | Focus on personal growth and potential |
Conclusion
Each approach explains personality in its own way. The trait approach looks at stable patterns, learning focuses on environment, biological and evolutionary look at genetics and survival, while humanistic highlights free will and self-growth. A full understanding of personality comes when we combine these approaches, as personality is complex and multi-dimensional.
Question 8
What are the types, etiology, and symptoms of mood disorders? Explain your answer according to DSM classification.
Introduction
Mood disorders are mental health conditions that affect a person’s emotional state. These disorders cause extreme sadness, happiness, or both. According to DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), mood disorders are now called “Depressive Disorders” and “Bipolar and Related Disorders”.
Types of Mood Disorders (According to DSM-5)
- Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
- Long-lasting sadness and loss of interest in life.
- At least 2 weeks of symptoms required for diagnosis.
- Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
- Chronic form of depression lasting at least 2 years.
- Less severe than MDD but more long-term.
- Bipolar I Disorder
- Extreme mood swings between mania and depression.
- At least one manic episode must be present.
- Bipolar II Disorder
- Includes hypomania (less intense than mania) and major depression.
- No full manic episodes.
- Cyclothymic Disorder
- Milder highs and lows that last for 2 years.
- Does not meet full criteria of bipolar.
- Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
- Depression that happens during specific seasons, usually winter.
- Postpartum Depression
- Depression after childbirth, common in mothers.
Symptoms of Mood Disorders
Depressive Symptoms (Common in MDD, Dysthymia)
- Sadness or empty mood
- Loss of interest in activities
- Fatigue or low energy
- Sleep problems (too much or too little)
- Changes in appetite or weight
- Difficulty in concentration
- Feelings of guilt or worthlessness
- Suicidal thoughts
Manic Symptoms (Seen in Bipolar I)
- High energy and excitement
- Less need for sleep
- Rapid speech and racing thoughts
- Overconfidence or grand ideas
- Risky behavior (spending money, unsafe sex)
- Easily distracted
- Irritable mood
Hypomanic Symptoms (Seen in Bipolar II)
- Similar to mania but less severe
- Does not cause major problems in daily life
Etiology (Causes of Mood Disorders)
- Biological Factors
- Imbalance in brain chemicals like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.
- Genetics: Mood disorders can run in families.
- Brain structure differences (e.g., smaller hippocampus in depression).
- Psychological Factors
- Negative thinking patterns (cognitive distortions).
- Low self-esteem and hopelessness.
- Environmental Factors
- Stressful life events (loss of job, breakup, death of loved one).
- Childhood trauma or abuse.
- Social and Cultural Factors
- Lack of social support.
- Social isolation.
- Cultural pressure or discrimination.
- Hormonal Changes
- Can affect mood in pregnancy, menopause, or thyroid problems.
Conclusion
Mood disorders are serious mental illnesses that can affect anyone. DSM-5 provides clear classification for proper diagnosis and treatment. Understanding the types, symptoms, and causes helps in early treatment and recovery. With therapy, medication, and support, people with mood disorders can lead a normal life.
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