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CSS Past Paper 2023 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2)

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CSS Past Paper 2023 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2)
CSS | Past Paper | Group 7 | 2023 | Part 2 | Descriptive

Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2023 Psychology Descriptive (Part 2).

Question 2

What is gestalt school of thought? Write major Gestalt principles of visual perception.

Introduction

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought in psychology that began in Germany during the early 20th century. The word “Gestalt” means “whole” or “form” in German. This theory says that humans naturally see things as organized patterns and wholes, not just small parts. The famous saying from Gestalt theory is:

“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts”.

Gestalt School of Thought

Gestalt theory was mainly developed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka. They believed that when people look at a complex scene, their brain quickly organizes the visual information into a meaningful whole using certain rules.

Gestalt psychology was a reaction against structuralism, which focused too much on small parts of experience. Instead, Gestalt theory focused on how people understand the big picture.

Major Principles of Gestalt Visual Perception

Gestalt psychologists explained how the mind organizes visual information using these important principles:

1. Law of Proximity
  • Objects that are close to each other are seen as a group.
  • Example: Dots placed near each other are seen as one set, even if they’re all the same.
2. Law of Similarity
  • Objects that look similar (same color, size, or shape) are grouped together.
  • Example: A row of red circles and a row of blue circles will be seen as two groups.
3. Law of Continuity (Good Continuation)
  • The mind follows smooth lines or patterns instead of broken or sharp ones.
  • Example: When two lines cross, we still see them as two whole lines, not four parts.
4. Law of Closure
  • The mind fills in missing parts to complete a shape or image.
  • Example: If parts of a circle are missing, we still recognize it as a circle.
5. Law of Figure and Ground
  • We naturally separate objects (figure) from their background (ground).
  • Example: In the vase-face illusion, you either see a vase or two faces depending on what you focus on.
6. Law of Symmetry
  • The mind prefers symmetrical and balanced figures.
  • Example: A symmetrical design is seen as one complete object.
7. Law of Common Fate
  • Objects moving in the same direction are seen as part of the same group.
  • Example: Birds flying together in the same direction are seen as a flock.
Application of Gestalt Principles
  • Used in advertising, logo design, web design, and education
  • Helps to create clear, organized, and attractive visuals
  • Also used in problem solving and learning psychology
Conclusion

Gestalt psychology helps us understand how people make sense of what they see. Instead of focusing on small pieces, the brain tries to build a full picture. The Gestalt principles of visual perception explain how we group and organize information, making this theory very useful in modern design, art, and learning.

Question 3

Describe in detail the Jean Piaget’s Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development.

Introduction

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for putting forth his ideas on the learning and thinking of children. He stated that children were not just little adults but thought differently. His theory is called the Cognitive Development Theory and is used to explain how children’s thought processes change as they grow older. Piaget suggests that children are possessed of four stages of mental development. These stages show how these different skills of thought, memory, learning and problem solving develop step by step by step in a child’s mental make-up.

Main Ideas of Piaget’s Theory
  • Children are active learners: They learn by doing things and exploring.
  • Development happens in stages: All children go through the same four stages in the same order.
  • Each stage builds on the one before it.
  • Schemas: These are mental structures or patterns we use to understand the world.
  • Assimilation: Adding new things into what we already know.
  • Accommodation: Changing what we know to fit in new things.
The Four Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
  • In this stage, babies learn through their senses (seeing, hearing, touching) and actions (like grabbing or crawling).
  • They don’t understand symbols or language in the beginning.
  • Key Feature:
    • Object Permanence develops—this means they understand that things still exist even when they can’t see them.
    • Example: A baby looks for a toy under the blanket, even if it’s hidden.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
  • Children start using language and symbols (like words or pictures).
  • They enjoy pretend play, but their thinking is still not logical.
  • Key Features:
    • Egocentrism: They think only from their point of view.
    • Lack of Conservation: They don’t understand that quantity stays the same even if the shape changes.
      • Example: If you pour water from a short glass into a tall glass, the child thinks there’s more water.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
  • Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete (based on real things).
  • They can now understand conservation, classification, and reversibility.
  • Key Features:
    • Understands cause and effect.
    • Can solve problems but only with real objects or events.
    • Less egocentric—they can understand others’ viewpoints.
      • Example: A child can now tell that 5+3 = 8 and also 8−3 = 5.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and above)
  • Now, children can think abstractly and reason about things they haven’t experienced.
  • They can do hypothetical thinking (“what if” questions).
  • They use logic and can plan for the future.
  • Key Features:
    • Abstract thinking
    • Problem-solving in the mind
      • Example: They can understand concepts like love, justice, and freedom.
Importance of Piaget’s Theory in Education
  • Helps teachers understand how students think at different ages.
  • Teaching methods can be adjusted according to the child’s stage.
  • Encourages hands-on learning in early stages and critical thinking in later stages.
Conclusion

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has been a matter of discussion in the field of psychology and education. It helps us to understand how the child learns and what is taking place mentally. Each stage shows another method of thinking, and an understanding of this will benefit teachers and parents in the way to help children in their case.

Question 4

Narrate how Wallas Stage Model of Creativity can help in developing an innovative idea? Is the Gardner theory of multiple intelligences an accurate and sufficient explanation of intelligence? Support your answer with examples.

Introduction

Creativity and intelligence are two important subjects in the field of psychology. Creativity aids the mind in creating new ideas, while intelligence helps the child and adult solve the problems that arise. In this question we will discuss Wallas’ Stage Model of Creativity and Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences and further how they can be put to practical use.

Part 1: Wallas’ Stage Model of Creativity

Graham Wallas gave a model of the creative process in 1926. He said that the process of creativity is in four stages. This model is useful in arriving at new and original ideas on a step-by-step basis.

1. Preparation Stage
  • In this stage, a person collects information and learns about the problem.
  • Brain is busy gathering facts, learning skills, and exploring the topic deeply.
    Example: An engineer wants to make a new bridge. First, he studies materials, designs, and past examples.
2. Incubation Stage
  • The problem is set aside for a while.
  • The mind works on it in the background, sometimes without us realizing it.
    Example: While taking a walk or sleeping, an idea suddenly pops up related to the problem.
3. Illumination Stage (Aha Moment)
  • Suddenly, a new idea or solution comes to mind.
  • This is the creative breakthrough.
    Example: The engineer suddenly gets the idea to use a new material to reduce weight and cost.
4. Verification Stage
  • The idea is tested and improved.
  • It is checked if it really works or needs changes.
    Example: The engineer builds a model and checks if the bridge design is strong and safe.
How It Helps in Developing Innovative Ideas?
  • This model gives a clear process to follow.
  • It helps to not rush creative work.
  • It allows time for thinking and reflection, which leads to better results.
Part 2: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner, in 1983, said intelligence is not just one thing like IQ. He believed people are smart in different ways. He gave eight types of intelligence.

1. Linguistic Intelligence
  • Good at language, writing, speaking
    Example: Writers, poets
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
  • Good at problem solving, numbers
    Example: Scientists, engineers
3. Spatial Intelligence
  • Good at visualizing things
    Example: Architects, artists
4. Musical Intelligence
  • Understands sounds, tones, rhythm
    Example: Singers, musicians
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
  • Good at physical movement
    Example: Athletes, dancers
6. Interpersonal Intelligence
  • Good at understanding others
    Example: Teachers, leaders
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
  • Good at understanding self
    Example: Philosophers, therapists
8. Naturalistic Intelligence
  • Good at nature, animals, environment
    Example: Farmers, biologists
Is Gardner’s Theory Accurate and Sufficient?
Strengths
  • It respects different talents.
  • It helps teachers understand that not all students learn the same way.
  • It is used in schools to support all types of learners.
Weaknesses
  • Some psychologists say it is not well-tested by research.
  • It may not explain intelligence in scientific ways like IQ tests do.
  • There is overlap between the types (e.g., musical and bodily intelligence in dancers).
Conclusion

Wallas’ model of creativity tells how creativity is on a step-by-step basis, who leads to the new learning and eventually results in the breakthrough ideas. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences sets forth the idea that intelligence is not only concerned with numbers or language but is multi-faceted by many different powers and assets of performance. Together, they set forth the ideas that aid us in trying to understand how psychology thinks, creates and solves problems in the way peculiar to the individual.

Question 5

What are personality disorders? Explain in detail.

Introduction

Personality disorders are psychological problems in which people have unhealthy thought, feeling, and behavior patterns. These are chronic patterns that have resulted in dysfunction in relationships, work, or daily living. The person with a personality disorder is often not aware that their behaviors are different from or harmful to others, which makes it difficult to help them.

Definition

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) calls personality disorders “enduring patterns of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture”.

General Features of Personality Disorders
  • Begin in teenage years or early adulthood
  • Affect thinking, emotions, relationships, and control over actions
  • Cause problems in social and job life
  • Person often doesn’t feel they have a problem
Types of Personality Disorders (Cluster-Wise Classification)

The DSM-5 groups personality disorders into three clusters:

Cluster A – Odd or Eccentric Behavior
  1. Paranoid Personality Disorder
    • Distrusts others without reason
    • Thinks others are trying to harm or cheat them
    • Always suspicious
  2. Schizoid Personality Disorder
    • Avoids relationships
    • Emotionally cold and distant
    • Prefers to be alone
  3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder
    • Strange beliefs and behavior
    • Talks or dresses oddly
    • Feels uncomfortable in close relationships
Cluster B – Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behavior
  1. Antisocial Personality Disorder
    • Ignores others’ rights
    • Lies, cheats, or breaks laws
    • No guilt for hurting others
    • Often seen in criminals
  2. Borderline Personality Disorder
    • Unstable mood and relationships
    • Fear of being abandoned
    • Sudden anger, sadness, or risky behavior
    • Hurts self sometimes
  3. Histrionic Personality Disorder
    • Seeks attention all the time
    • Talks dramatically, very emotional
    • Easily influenced by others
  4. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
    • Thinks they are very special
    • Wants admiration
    • Lacks empathy
    • Feels others are below them
Cluster C – Anxious or Fearful Behavior
  1. Avoidant Personality Disorder
    • Very shy and afraid of rejection
    • Feels not good enough
    • Avoids social contact
  2. Dependent Personality Disorder
    • Can’t make decisions without help
    • Always depends on others
    • Fears being alone
  3. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)
    • Needs control, rules, and order
    • Perfectionist
    • Stubborn, can’t relax
      (Note: Different from OCD, which is an anxiety disorder)
Causes of Personality Disorders
  • Genetic Factors: May run in families
  • Environmental Factors: Trauma, abuse, neglect in childhood
  • Brain Abnormalities: Problems in brain structure or chemicals
  • Parenting Style: Overcontrolling or neglectful parents
Treatment Options
  • Psychotherapy (Talk Therapy): Helps understand and change behavior
  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Focuses on changing negative thinking
  • Medication: To manage anxiety, depression, or aggression
  • Group Therapy or Family Therapy: Improves relationships and support
Conclusion

Personality disorders are one of the serious psychological problems that affect the way that people relate to people and to life. Personality disorders are chronic and difficult to treat, but provided an appropriate psychotherapeutic and social structure is imposed, the patient may learn to live despite the symptomatology. Early diagnosis of these disorders and knowledge of them are most important in facilitating better living for the personality-disordered person.

Question 6

What are the different ways in which conflict can occur in an organization? What are the major Conflict Management Styles to deal with it? Write in detail.

Introduction

Conflict is a normal part of any organization. It is the result of the existence of disagreement of purpose, thought, or need on the part of people within the organization. If not properly handled, the conflict may lead to lack of cooperation, loss of productivity, and increased tension. If properly handled, it may serve as a stimulus to development of new ideas and improvement of decisions.

Ways Conflict Can Occur in an Organization

There are many ways conflict can happen in a workplace. Below are the major ones:

1. Task Conflict
  • Happens when team members disagree about what needs to be done.
  • Example: Two employees disagree on how to complete a project.
2. Relationship Conflict
  • Happens because of personal issues, emotions, or personality clashes.
  • Example: One worker feels another is rude or disrespectful.
3. Process Conflict
  • When people don’t agree on how the work should be done.
  • Example: Team members argue about using one method over another.
4. Role Conflict
  • When employees are unsure of their job roles or think someone is interfering in their work.
  • Example: Two managers giving opposite instructions to one worker.
5. Resource Conflict
  • When people or departments fight over limited resources like budget, time, or tools.
  • Example: Two departments want the same equipment for their projects.
6. Communication Conflict
  • Misunderstandings due to poor communication.
  • Example: An unclear email creates confusion and leads to blame.
7. Organizational Structure Conflict
  • When the hierarchy or structure of the company causes confusion or power struggles.
  • Example: Too many layers of authority slow down decisions and frustrate employees.
Major Conflict Management Styles

To handle conflicts, managers and employees use different styles. These are based on how much they focus on their own needs versus others’ needs.

1. Avoiding (Low self, low others)
  • Person ignores the conflict and hopes it goes away.
  • Useful when the issue is small, or emotions are high.
  • Weakness: The problem remains unsolved.
  • Example: Two workers stop talking instead of solving their issue.
2. Accommodating (Low self, high others)
  • One person gives in to the other side.
  • Good for keeping peace, especially if the issue is not important.
  • Weakness: The person may feel ignored or undervalued.
  • Example: A junior agrees with a senior just to avoid argument.
3. Competing (High self, low others)
  • One person pushes their solution without caring about others.
  • Useful in emergencies or when quick decisions are needed.
  • Weakness: Can damage relationships.
  • Example: A manager forces a decision without hearing team input.
4. Compromising (Medium self, medium others)
  • Both sides give up something to reach a solution.
  • Useful when time is limited.
  • Weakness: No one is fully satisfied.
  • Example: Two teams agree to split a resource equally.
5. Collaborating (High self, high others)
  • Both sides work together to find a win-win solution.
  • Best way to solve complex issues.
  • Weakness: Takes time and effort.
  • Example: Team members openly discuss ideas to create the best plan.
Conclusion

Conflict is normal in any organization but must be susceptible of right management. Knowledge of the sources of the conflict renders it possible for the proper approach to these types of situations. In the proper use of the proper styles of conflict management, the momentary acrimony of the disagreements may serve as a stepping stone along the way to growth and development and cooperation by the employees and management. The end result of the information should be not simply peace, but to be able to amicably settle the problems encountered in such a way that better relationship and a better working bond result.

Question 7

Write a note on the importance of emotions in human psychology. What are the major theories that describe the significance of emotions in human behaviour?

Introduction

Emotions are an essential aspect of human existence. They affect how we think, act, and relate to other people. Emotions in psychology are thought of as minor feelings arising from the experiences, thoughts or relationships of the human subject. Emotions are a safeguard against danger, influence decisions, and develop social bonds.

Importance of Emotions in Human Psychology
1. Emotions Guide Behavior
  • Emotions help people respond quickly to situations.
  • For example, fear makes us escape danger, and happiness encourages social bonding.
2. Emotions Affect Decision-Making
  • Emotional reactions often guide our choices in daily life.
  • Example: A person may avoid a risky deal because of a bad feeling.
3. Emotions Help in Communication
  • We express emotions through facial expressions, tone, and body language.
  • Example: Smiling shows friendliness without saying a word.
4. Emotions Influence Relationships
  • Love, anger, jealousy, or trust affect how we treat others.
  • Strong emotions can build or break relationships.
5. Emotions and Mental Health
  • Uncontrolled emotions like anxiety, sadness, or anger can lead to mental disorders.
  • Emotional balance is important for a healthy mind.
6. Motivation and Emotions
  • Emotions push people to act.
  • For example, anger may motivate someone to stand up for themselves.
Major Theories of Emotions in Psychology

Several psychologists have tried to explain how emotions work. Here are some major theories:

1. James-Lange Theory (1880s)
  • Says emotions happen after the body reacts.
  • Sequence: Event → Physical Reaction → Emotion
  • Example: You see a snake → your heart races → you feel fear.
  • So, we feel afraid because we tremble.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory (1920s)
  • Says emotions and body reactions happen at the same time.
  • Sequence: Event → Brain processes → Emotion + Physical reaction
  • Example: You see a snake → you feel fear and your heart races at the same time.
3. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory (1962)
  • Says emotion depends on both physical arousal and how we explain it.
  • Sequence: Event → Body arousal → Label the situation → Emotion
  • Example: You see a snake → heart beats → you think “I’m in danger” → you feel fear.
4. Lazarus Cognitive Appraisal Theory
  • Says emotions depend on how we think about a situation before we feel anything.
  • Sequence: Event → Thought → Emotion + Physical reaction
  • Example: If you think something is harmful, you feel fear. If you think it’s funny, you laugh.
5. Facial Feedback Theory
  • Says facial expressions can affect our emotions.
  • Smiling can actually make you feel happier.
  • Example: Forcing a smile in a bad mood may lift your mood.
Conclusion

Emotions are deeply linked with our thoughts, behavior, and relationships. They help us survive, connect, and grow. Different theories explain emotions in different ways, but all agree that emotions are powerful and necessary. Understanding emotions is important for psychologists, teachers, doctors, and even managers to improve human life.

Question 8

What are major tests to assess human intelligence? Write relevant tests to measure human intelligence in detail.

Introduction

Intelligence is the ability to learn, understand, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Psychologists have made many tests to measure intelligence. These tests help in education, job selection, clinical diagnosis, and research.

There are two main types of intelligence tests: individual tests and group tests. Some tests measure general IQ, while others focus on special areas like memory, reasoning, or language skills.

1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
  • Developed by: Alfred Binet and later revised by Lewis Terman (Stanford University).
  • Type: Individual IQ test
  • Age Group: 2 to adult
  • Measures: Verbal and non-verbal reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and knowledge.
  • IQ Formula: Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age × 100
  • Use: Often used in schools and clinical settings.
  • Example: A child with mental age of 10 and actual age of 8 will have IQ = (10/8)×100 = 125.
2. Wechsler Intelligence Scales

Developed by David Wechsler, these tests are most widely used today. There are three main versions:

a) WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)
  • For ages 16 and above
  • Measures verbal comprehension, working memory, processing speed, and reasoning
b) WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)
  • For ages 6 to 16
  • Common in schools and psychological testing
c) WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence)
  • For children aged 2.5 to 7 years
  • Measures early learning abilities

Scoring: Based on performance compared to a normal group, average IQ = 100

3. Raven’s Progressive Matrices
  • Type: Non-verbal test
  • Age Group: Children to adults
  • Focus: Measures abstract reasoning and problem-solving
  • Format: Pattern recognition questions with missing pieces
  • Use: Fair for all cultures and languages
  • Example: Often used in job testing or army selection
4. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC)
  • Type: Individual test
  • Age Group: 3 to 18 years
  • Measures: Short-term memory, reasoning, and learning ability
  • Use: Helps identify learning disabilities and strengths
5. Cattell’s Culture Fair Intelligence Test
  • Designed to remove cultural and language bias
  • Focus: Measures fluid intelligence (logic, problem-solving)
  • Useful for international testing or people with different backgrounds
6. Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities
  • Measures both general intelligence and specific abilities
  • Use: Education, career planning, and diagnosing learning issues
7. Army Alpha and Beta Tests (Historical)
  • Used in World War I to test soldiers’ mental abilities
  • Alpha: For English-speaking literates
  • Beta: For illiterates or non-English speakers
  • Set the foundation for modern group intelligence testing
Important Concepts in Intelligence Testing
  • IQ (Intelligence Quotient): A score to compare a person’s ability with others
  • Validity: Whether the test measures what it claims
  • Reliability: Whether the test gives consistent results
  • Standardization: Comparing scores to a large group to find average
Conclusion

Intelligence tests help us understand a person’s mental strengths and weaknesses. They are used in schools, jobs, military, and clinical settings. But it’s important to choose the right test and consider cultural, social, and language differences while testing. Intelligence is not just one number; it’s a combination of many abilities.

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