CSS Past Paper 2023 Public Administration Descriptive (Part 2)
CSS | Past Paper | Group 3 | 2023 | Part 2 | Descriptive
Below is the solution to PART-II (COMPULSORY) of the CSS Past Paper 2023 Public Administration Descriptive (Part 2).
Question 2
What are the different ways in which policies and programs can be evaluated? Discuss the approaches and explain the distinctions in these approaches.
Introduction
Policy and program evaluation is very important in public administration. It helps to see if a program or policy is working well or not. Without evaluation, the government can’t know if it’s using its resources properly. There are many ways and approaches to evaluate policies and programs. Each one has a different focus and method.
Types of Policy and Program Evaluation
There are different types of evaluation depending on when and how it’s done:
a) Formative Evaluation
This type is done during the planning or early stage of a program. It helps improve the design before full implementation.
Example: If a health program is planned to reduce malaria, formative evaluation checks if the design is practical and suitable before launch.
b) Summative Evaluation
This is done after a program ends. It checks the final results and sees whether the objectives were achieved.
Example: After a 5-year education reform, summative evaluation checks if literacy rates improved.
c) Process Evaluation
This focuses on how the program was implemented. It checks the activities, procedures, and delivery methods.
Example: In a vaccination program, process evaluation checks if vaccines reached the target areas properly.
d) Impact Evaluation
It checks the long-term effects of a program on society. It is more detailed and looks at big outcomes.
Example: Checking if women empowerment programs actually reduced gender inequality in the long term.
e) Cost-Benefit Evaluation
This type compares the cost of a program to the benefits it gives. It helps see if the program is worth spending money on.
Approaches to Evaluation
There are several approaches used in policy evaluation. These are:
i. Goal-Based Approach
This approach checks if the goals of the policy were achieved or not. It is simple but sometimes ignores unexpected outcomes.
Example: A program aimed to increase school attendance by 20%. The evaluation will check if this goal was achieved.
ii. Process-Based Approach
This approach focuses on how the program is being delivered. It helps find problems in management or structure.
Example: Looking at staff training, communication, and resources used in delivering the policy.
iii. Outcomes-Based Approach
It checks the real change or effect caused by the policy. It focuses more on impact than on how the program was run.
Example: A job training program is evaluated by checking if people got jobs after training.
iv. Theory-Based Approach
This approach tries to understand the logic behind the policy. It looks at how and why the program is supposed to work.
Example: If a youth skill development program assumes that training leads to jobs, the theory-based approach checks if this logic makes sense and works.
v. Participatory Approach
In this, stakeholders like citizens, beneficiaries, and even employees are involved in evaluation. It gives more democratic results and better feedback.
Example: Asking local farmers about an agricultural subsidy program helps in understanding its real effect.
Distinctions Between These Approaches
| Approach | Focus | Strength | Weakness |
| Goal-Based | Results vs. goals | Simple & direct | Ignores how goals were achieved |
| Process-Based | Implementation steps | Helps improve efficiency | Doesn’t show real impact |
| Outcomes-Based | Final outcomes | Shows effectiveness | Hard to measure long-term effects |
| Theory-Based | Program logic | Deep understanding | Needs more data and time |
| Participatory | Involving stakeholders | Inclusive & real-world views | Can be biased or emotional |
Conclusion
Evaluation is not just about measuring success or failure. It helps improve programs and make better policies in future. Different approaches serve different needs. A good evaluator sometimes uses more than one method to get a full picture. For better governance and accountability, proper evaluation must be done in every stage of the policy process.
Question 3
A great deal of political debate in the last two decades has focused on strategies for controlling the federal budget deficit. Why is this an important issue for the government and what strategies have been employed by governments to manage the deficit? Give examples.
Introduction
Federal budget deficit happens when the government spends more money than it earns through taxes and other sources. This issue is very serious because it affects the economy, inflation, borrowing, and the country’s financial image. Many governments around the world, especially in developing countries like Pakistan, face this problem regularly.
Why Budget Deficit is an Important Issue?
1. Economic Instability
When a country has a large deficit, it can cause inflation. The government may print more money, which reduces the value of the currency. This creates price hikes and people suffer.
2. Increase in Debt
To cover the deficit, the government borrows money from local and international sources. This increases national debt, and the country has to pay back with interest. This creates a burden on future budgets.
3. Lower Investment in Development
When most of the money goes to debt repayment and interest, less money is left for development projects like education, health, and infrastructure.
4. Loss of Investor Confidence
If a country is always in deficit, investors may lose trust. They stop investing, which affects growth and creates unemployment.
5. Pressure from International Institutions
Institutions like IMF and World Bank put conditions before giving loans to deficit countries. This can affect a country’s sovereignty and decision-making power.
Strategies Used to Control Budget Deficit
Governments use different methods to reduce budget deficit. Some focus on increasing income, others focus on cutting expenses.
1. Tax Reforms
Governments try to collect more taxes by improving tax systems, reducing tax evasion, and introducing new taxes.
Example: In Pakistan, the government started digital tracking of big businesses to catch tax evaders and increase tax net.
2. Spending Cuts (Austerity Measures)
Reducing unnecessary government spending like luxury benefits for officials, subsidies, or unproductive projects.
Example: European countries like Greece and Spain used austerity during the Eurozone crisis to reduce their budget deficit.
3. Privatization of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs)
Selling government-owned companies to private investors helps the government earn money and reduce financial burden.
Example: Pakistan sold shares of PIA and other loss-making institutions to reduce budget pressure.
4. Increase in Exports and FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)
Boosting exports brings more dollars, which helps the economy. FDI creates jobs and reduces the need for government spending.
Example: China attracted huge FDI by making business-friendly policies, which helped in reducing its deficit.
5. Controlling Corruption and Leakages
Corruption causes major financial losses. Governments try to stop leakages through better audits and accountability.
Example: NAB and FIA in Pakistan are often used to catch corrupt officials involved in misusing public funds.
6. Getting Aid and Loans with Conditions
Sometimes governments borrow from IMF or World Bank and follow their conditions to control the deficit, like reducing subsidies.
Example: In 2022, Pakistan agreed to IMF conditions like raising fuel prices to reduce the fiscal burden.
7. Promoting Documentation of Economy
Many countries have large informal sectors. By documenting the economy, the government brings more businesses into the tax net.
Example: Pakistan introduced CNIC-based invoices to catch fake transactions and improve documentation.
Conclusion
The budget deficit is a serious issue that needs strong financial planning. If not controlled, it leads to more borrowing, inflation, and poor development. Governments use various strategies like tax reforms, spending cuts, and privatization to manage the deficit. However, success depends on political will, transparency, and public support. Long-term planning, not just short-term fixes, is the real solution for a stable financial future.
Question 4
Contemporary perspectives on leadership suggest that leadership is not just the responsibility of those in positions of authority but can and should be exercised throughout the organization. Write an essay defending this suggestion. Can individuals that are normally considered “followers” exercise leadership? Explain.
Introduction
In the past, leadership was only linked with high positions like managers, officers, or heads. But now, modern thinking about leadership has changed. Today, leadership is seen more as a behavior, not a title. Even people who are not in authority, like regular team members or followers, can also act like leaders. This idea is very important in public administration and other fields.
Leadership Beyond Authority
Leadership is not about bossing others or having power. It is about influence, guidance, and taking responsibility. A person can lead by setting a good example, supporting others, or bringing new ideas — even if they don’t have a big title.
Example
A nurse in a hospital who finds a better way to manage patients and shares it with others is showing leadership — even if she is not the head nurse.
Why Leadership Should Be Shared in the Organization?
1. Encourages Teamwork
When everyone feels like a leader, they take more responsibility and work harder. This builds strong teamwork.
2. Solves Problems Faster
Frontline workers often know problems better than top management. If they are allowed to lead in their own way, problems can be fixed quickly.
3. Increases Motivation
People feel more valued and motivated when they know their voice matters. This improves performance.
4. Builds Innovation
Ideas can come from anyone. When leadership is open to all, it leads to creativity and innovation.
5. Reduces Burden from Top Leaders
When leadership is shared, the organization doesn’t rely on one person. This creates a healthy and balanced work culture.
Can “Followers” Exercise Leadership?
Yes, followers can also show leadership. In fact, many great leaders started as followers who took initiative. Leadership is not a fixed role — it can change depending on the situation.
Ways Followers Can Show Leadership
- Taking Initiative: Doing tasks without waiting for orders.
- Helping Others: Guiding team members who are struggling.
- Raising Voice: Speaking up when something wrong is happening.
- Sharing Ideas: Giving new and useful suggestions in meetings.
- Being a Role Model: Showing honesty, hard work, and good behavior.
Example 1
In a disaster relief operation, a volunteer who coordinates food distribution better than others shows leadership — even if no one gave him an official title.
Example 2
In a school, a student who helps other classmates understand a topic after class is also acting like a leader.
Contemporary Theories Supporting This Idea
a) Transformational Leadership Theory
This theory focuses on inspiring others and creating positive change. Anyone who motivates others and brings a vision is a leader.
b) Servant Leadership
This idea says that true leaders serve others. Even if someone is a follower, by helping the team selflessly, they show servant leadership.
c) Shared Leadership
This is the most relevant. It says leadership roles move around. Different people can lead at different times based on their skills.
Challenges to This Idea
- Some organizations still believe in strict hierarchy.
- Not everyone feels confident to lead without authority.
- Lack of training and support for followers.
But with time, training, and encouragement, these problems can be solved.
Conclusion
Leadership is no longer limited to a chair or a badge. It is a mindset and an action that anyone can practice. In today’s fast and complex world, organizations need leadership from every corner — not just the top. When followers lead with honesty, ideas, and courage, the whole system becomes better. So yes, leadership belongs to everyone, not just the people in authority.
Question 5
Public officials at all levels have established processes to encourage more substantive forms of citizen engagement. What is citizen engagement? Give examples of these efforts, and what is the potential, in your opinion, for these efforts to create truly meaningful engagement?
Introduction
Citizen engagement means involving people in the decisions and actions of the government. It is not just about voting in elections, but also about giving ideas, raising issues, and helping in solving problems. Today, it is very important for better governance because it builds trust, improves policies, and increases transparency.
What is Citizen Engagement?
Citizen engagement is when the government listens to the public and includes their input in policymaking, planning, and implementation. It creates a two-way communication between citizens and public officials.
It is also known as public participation, and it can be direct (people join meetings, give feedback) or indirect (through elected representatives or online platforms).
Examples of Citizen Engagement Efforts
1. Town Hall Meetings
Public officials invite citizens to talk about local issues like water, roads, or education. People ask questions, give opinions, and suggest solutions.
2. E-Governance Platforms
Many governments have websites and mobile apps where people can submit complaints, give feedback, and track progress.
Example: In Pakistan, the “Pakistan Citizen’s Portal” allows users to register complaints directly to government departments.
3. Participatory Budgeting
Citizens help decide how to spend a part of the public budget. It is done at the local level to ensure money goes to real needs.
Example: Some local governments in Brazil and India involve citizens in deciding which area needs more funding (schools, roads, health etc.)
4. Policy Consultations
Before passing a law or policy, the government asks experts, NGOs, and citizens to give suggestions. This improves the quality of laws.
5. Community Policing
Police work closely with local communities to maintain law and order. Citizens report crimes, suggest improvements, and help with local security.
Potential of Citizen Engagement for Meaningful Impact
1. Builds Trust in Government
When citizens feel heard, they start trusting the system more. This makes governance stronger and reduces protests or conflicts.
2. Better Decision Making
People know their problems better than anyone. Their input helps in making smarter and realistic policies.
3. More Transparency and Accountability
Public engagement keeps officials under check. They can’t misuse funds or power easily when the public is watching.
4. Social Inclusion
Poor and marginalized groups get a chance to raise their voice. This leads to more equal development.
5. Increases Awareness and Responsibility
Citizens understand how the system works. They also feel more responsible to play their part like paying taxes, protecting public property, and following laws.
Challenges in Citizen Engagement
- Lack of Education and Awareness: Many people don’t know how to take part or don’t believe their voice matters.
- Digital Divide: Poor internet access stops rural people from joining online platforms.
- Political Influence: Sometimes, only powerful groups are heard, and common people are ignored.
- Bureaucratic Resistance: Some officials don’t like public interference and prefer to work alone.
Suggestions to Improve Engagement
- Use local languages and simple formats in meetings and forms.
- Increase awareness campaigns about public rights.
- Improve internet access in remote areas.
- Train government staff to be more open and responsive.
Conclusion
Citizen engagement is not just a formality — it is a key part of modern governance. When people are included in decisions, the government becomes more fair, honest, and efficient. Though there are some problems, with the right steps and political will, citizen engagement can become truly meaningful and bring positive change to society.
Question 6
It has been widely argued that the impact of globalization on public administration should not be underestimated. What is meant by the term ‘globalization’? How does this trend affect public administrators at various levels and why should administrators pay attention to the global context of their work? Explain.
Introduction
Globalization means the growing connection of countries through trade, communication, technology, travel, and ideas. It has changed how governments and public administrators work. Earlier, public administration was only focused on national issues, but now global factors affect local policies too. So, ignoring globalization can create problems in planning and implementation.
What is Globalization?
Globalization is the process where countries become more linked through:
- Trade and Economy
- Technology and Internet
- Cultural Exchange
- International Laws and Institutions
- Migration and Labor Movement
In simple words, globalization removes borders when it comes to economy, communication, and ideas. This affects how public policies are made and how services are delivered.
How Globalization Affects Public Administration?
1. Policy Influence from International Organizations
Governments now follow rules or guidelines from global institutions like IMF, World Bank, WTO, and UN. Public administrators must understand these policies and adjust national programs accordingly.
Example: IMF’s structural reforms may ask governments to reduce subsidies or privatize services — these changes how administrators plan budgets.
2. Rise of E-Government and Technology
Due to global digital trends, public services are shifting online. Administrators need to handle digital data, ensure cybersecurity, and improve e-governance.
Example: Many departments in Pakistan now use online portals for complaints and services like NADRA and Pakistan Citizen’s Portal.
3. International Collaboration
Global problems like climate change, terrorism, pandemics, and migration need cooperation across borders. Administrators must work with international partners, NGOs, and foreign donors.
Example: During COVID-19, health officials followed WHO guidelines, and governments used global vaccine programs like COVAX.
4. Competition and Efficiency Pressure
Globalization brings more competition. Citizens compare local services with those in other countries. So, administrators are expected to deliver better, faster, and more efficient public services.
5. Human Rights and Governance Standards
Global NGOs and media highlight issues like corruption, discrimination, or bad governance. Public administrators must follow international norms to maintain a positive image.
6. Public Sector Reforms
Many countries have adopted New Public Management (NPM), inspired by Western models. This focuses on performance, customer service, and accountability — influenced by globalization.
Why Should Administrators Pay Attention to Global Context?
a) To Stay Updated
Policies and trends change fast. By watching global developments, administrators can make better decisions at home.
b) For Policy Learning and Benchmarking
Looking at how other countries solve problems gives ideas for improvement.
Example: Rwanda improved its tax collection system after studying Singapore’s model.
c) For Handling Cross-Border Issues
Terrorism, environmental disasters, and cybercrime don’t stop at borders. Public servants must be trained and ready for such global challenges.
d) For Effective Use of Foreign Aid
Countries receive foreign aid or loans with terms. Administrators should understand these to use the funds correctly.
e) For Economic Planning
Global markets affect national growth. Public administrators must plan according to world economic trends like oil prices, inflation, or global supply chains.
Challenges for Public Administrators
- Limited Resources and Training in developing countries.
- Cultural Differences may make global solutions hard to apply locally.
- Resistance to Change within bureaucracies.
- Dependency on Foreign Aid may reduce national decision-making power.
Conclusion
Globalization has deeply changed how public administration works. It brings new challenges but also many opportunities to learn, grow, and improve. Public administrators must stay connected with global trends, follow international standards, and upgrade their skills. Only then they can serve their people better in this fast-changing world.
Question 7
New Public Management has been hailed as the dominant paradigm for public service in the last two decades. In your opinion, how viable is NPM for developing countries taking into account the distinct and complex environment of public sector organizations in such countries?
Introduction
New Public Management (NPM) is a modern approach to running government like a business. It started in the 1980s in Western countries. NPM focuses on efficiency, performance, customer service, and less bureaucracy. But when we talk about developing countries like Pakistan, we must ask: Is this model suitable for our environment?
Key Features of NPM
- Focus on Results over Procedures
- Use of Private Sector Practices
- Decentralization
- Performance-Based Pay
- Customer Orientation
- Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)
- Privatization of State-Owned Enterprises
Viability of NPM in Developing Countries – A Mixed Picture
1. Advantages (Why NPM Can Work)
a) Better Service Delivery
NPM focuses on citizen satisfaction. This is badly needed in developing countries where people suffer due to slow and poor services.
Example: In Pakistan, e-governance tools like online CNIC renewal or complaint systems have improved public access.
b) Cost Efficiency
With limited budgets, developing countries can benefit from NPM’s focus on reducing waste and improving resource use.
c) Less Corruption and Red Tape
NPM’s performance-based approach and transparency can reduce corruption in public departments.
d) Improved Accountability
Through performance targets and monitoring systems, civil servants become more responsible for their work.
2. Challenges (Why NPM is Hard to Apply Fully?)
a) Weak Institutions
Most developing countries have poor systems, low-capacity staff, and lack of infrastructure. NPM needs a strong foundation to work.
b) Political Interference
Frequent changes in government, favoritism, and political pressure can destroy merit-based and performance-focused systems.
c) Public Resistance
People are used to the traditional ways. When reforms happen, many employees resist because they fear job loss or more pressure.
d) Inequality Risk
NPM may focus more on profitable services and ignore areas like health and education in rural areas which are not “commercial”.
e) Lack of Training and Technology
To implement NPM, staff need training and systems must go digital — which is a challenge in remote and underdeveloped areas.
Examples from Developing Countries
- Malaysia successfully adopted NPM reforms in education and health sectors with good results.
- Bangladesh tried to apply performance management, but due to political and administrative problems, it failed to deliver fully.
- Pakistan has used NPM ideas like one-window service centers and privatization. But lack of continuity and weak governance has slowed progress.
Suggestions to Make NPM Work in Developing Countries
- Capacity Building – Train civil servants in modern skills.
- Gradual Reforms – Don’t apply everything at once; start with pilot projects.
- Strong Political Will – Reforms should continue no matter which party is in power.
- Public Awareness – Teach people what to expect from public service.
- Adapt, Not Copy – Use NPM ideas in a way that suits local conditions.
Conclusion
NPM has many good ideas, but it is not a magic solution. In developing countries, the success of NPM depends on how well it is adapted to the local environment. Without fixing the basics — like corruption, weak institutions, and poor training — NPM cannot bring big changes. So, NPM is viable, but only with strong commitment, proper planning, and realistic expectations.
Question 8
(a) Planning is an important part of the policy process. Describe the various types of planning and discuss the objectives of each type.
Introduction
Planning is the first and most important step in the policy-making process. It means deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. Good planning helps in using resources properly and achieving goals without confusion. There are different types of planning used in public administration, each with a different purpose.
Types of Planning and Their Objectives
1. Strategic Planning
This is long-term planning. It sets big goals and direction for the future.
- Objective: To provide a clear vision and roadmap for the next 5–10 years.
- Example: A national education policy planning to increase literacy by 20% in 10 years.
2. Tactical Planning
This type supports strategic plans. It is more detailed and focuses on medium-term actions.
- Objective: To break big goals into smaller steps and manage departments or sectors.
- Example: Planning how to train 10,000 teachers in 3 years to meet the literacy goal.
3. Operational Planning
It deals with day-to-day tasks and activities.
- Objective: To ensure that routine work runs smoothly and goals are met on time.
- Example: Making a monthly schedule for teacher training workshops.
4. Contingency Planning
This is backup planning. It prepares for unexpected events or risks.
- Objective: To reduce damage or confusion if things go wrong.
- Example: Making a plan for online classes in case schools close due to floods or COVID-19.
5. Financial Planning
It focuses on the budget and funding needed for policy or project implementation.
- Objective: To manage resources and make sure enough money is available for each step.
- Example: Allocating budget for books, teacher salaries, and school construction.
6. Growth Planning
Used by governments to plan for population growth, urbanization, or economic development.
- Objective: To expand infrastructure and services in future.
- Example: Planning new housing societies, roads, and hospitals in growing cities.
Conclusion
Each type of planning plays a unique role. Strategic sets the vision, tactical breaks it down, operational runs the system, and contingency handles emergencies. Together, these types make sure that policies are successful and beneficial for the people.
(b) Implementation is the action phase in which plans and policies are put into operation. Discuss the techniques that can be utilized in the beginning stages of the implementation process.
Introduction
After planning, the next step is implementation. This is where actual work starts. Good implementation decides whether a policy will succeed or fail. Many policies fail not because of bad planning, but because of weak implementation. So, it is important to use the right techniques from the beginning.
Techniques for Early Stages of Implementation
1. Stakeholder Involvement
Involve people who will be affected by the policy — like citizens, NGOs, and local officials.
- Purpose: Builds support and reduces resistance.
- Example: Involving teachers in planning education reforms increases their cooperation during implementation.
2. Pilot Testing
Before applying a policy nationwide, test it in a small area first.
- Purpose: Helps find mistakes and improve the plan before full launch.
- Example: Starting a health insurance program in one district first.
3. Training and Capacity Building
Train the staff who will carry out the policy.
- Purpose: Ensures they understand their roles and perform better.
- Example: Giving training to local officers before launching a new digital system.
4. Resource Allocation
Provide the needed money, staff, tools, and time to the departments.
- Purpose: Makes sure implementation does not stop due to lack of resources.
- Example: Giving laptops and internet to schools before starting online classes.
5. Clear Communication
Give simple and clear instructions to all levels of the government and public.
- Purpose: Avoids confusion and delays.
- Example: Issuing clear guidelines on how to apply for a subsidy scheme.
6. Timeline and Monitoring System
Set deadlines and tracking methods to check progress.
- Purpose: Keeps the work on track and helps fix problems early.
- Example: Weekly reports and dashboards to check if targets are being met.
7. Political and Administrative Support
Ensure backing from top leadership and local authorities.
- Purpose: Gives legitimacy and power to implementers.
- Example: Prime Minister’s support for the Ehsaas Program helped its smooth start.
Conclusion
The first steps of implementation are very important. Using techniques like stakeholder involvement, training, and monitoring help avoid failure. A strong start creates confidence, solves problems early, and increases the chances of success.
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